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GIFT OF

KING'S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY

INSIDE FINISHING

CHARLES A. KING

DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING
EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL, BAY CITY, MICHIGAN

NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

KING'S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY

ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK
ELEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION
CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY
INSIDE FINISHING
HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS

ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON.
-W. P. I

PREFACE TO THE SERIES

THIS series consists of five volumes, four of which are intended
as textbooks for pupils in manual-training, industrial, trade, tech-
nical, or normal schools. The fifth book of the series, the " Hand-
book in Woodwork and Carpentry," is for the use of teachers and
of normal students who expect to teach the subjects treated in the
other four volumes.

Of the pupils' volumes, the first two, " Elements of Woodwork "
and " Elements of Construction," are adapted to the needs of stu-
dents in manual-training schools, or in any institution in which
elementary woodwork is taught, whether as purely educational
handwork, or as preparatory to a high, or trade, school course in
carpentry or vocational training.

The volumes " Constructive Carpentry " and " Inside Finish-
ing" are planned with special reference to the students of tech-
nical, industrial, or trade schools, who have passed through the
work of the first two volumes, or their equivalent. The subjects
treated are those which will be of greatest value to both the pro-
spective and the finished workman.

For the many teachers who are obliged to follow a required
course, but who are allowed to introduce supplementary or
optional models under certain conditions, and for others who
have more liberty and are able to make such changes as they
see fit, this series will be found perfectly adaptable, regardless
of the grades taught. To accomplish this, the material has been
arranged by topics, which may be used by the teacher irrespective
of the sequence, as each topic has to the greatest extent possible
been treated independently.

iii

239423

iv PREFACE TO THE SERIES

The author is indebted to Dr. George A. Hubbell, Ph.D., now
President of the Lincoln Memorial University, for encouragement
and advice in preparing for and planning the series, and to
George R. Swain, Principal of the Eastern High School of Bay
City, Michigan, for valuable aid in revising the manuscript.

Acknowledgment is due various educational and trade periodi-
cals, and the publications of the United States Departments of
Education and of Forestry, for the helpful suggestions that the
author has gleaned from their pages.

The illustrations in this Series, with the exception of the pho-
tographs in "Elements of Woodwork" and "Elements of Con-
struction/7 are from drawings made by the author.

CHAKLES A. KING.
BAY CITY. MICHIGAN.

PREFACE TO INSIDE FINISHING

IN many places carpenters are classified as framers or outside
men, and joiners or inside men ; the subject matter treated in
the following pages refers especially to the work of the latter,
as it deals with the fitting up of the house to make it habitable
after the framing, covering, and outside finishing have been
completed. Certain aspects of carpentry of interest to the pro-
spective contractor are also dealt with, and suggestions are offered
which will be of assistance to him in placing his business upon
a satisfactory basis.

In connection with this book, research, discussions, and the
writing of essays on the various subjects presented should be
required. The arithmetic includes many problems similar to
those which the mechanic has to solve in his daily work, and a
thorough drill upon these will add much to the equipment of the
future workman.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER I. HEATING, VENTILATION, SANITATION, REFRIGERATORS. —
1. Fireplaces and stoves ; 2. Hot-air heating ; 3. Steam and
hot- water heating ; 4. Steam heating ; 5. Hot-water heating ;
6. Ventilation; 7. Plumbing; 8. Sanitation; 9. Refrigerators;
10. Construction of an ice house 1

CHAPTER II. FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH. — 11. Floor laying;
12. Wood for finishing ; 13. Casings ; 14. Moldings ; 15. Mold-
ing joints ; 16. The dado ; 17. Rake dado ; 18. Soffits ; 19. A
splayed soffit; 20. Circular panel work ; 21. Closets; 22. A drawer
case; 23. A kitchen sink ; 24. The bathroom ; 25. Wood mantels,
hardware ............ 19

CHAPTER III. DOORS.— 26. Doors; 27. Stock sizes ; 28. Selection;
29. Veneered doors ; 30. The doorframes ; 31. The doorframes of
a brick house ; 32. Setting doorframes ; 33. Jointing ; 34. Hang-
ing a door ; 35. Fitting locks ; 36. The threshold .... 53

CHAPTER IV. WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH. — 37. Window frames;
38. Window sash ; 39. Glazing sash ; 40. Stock sizes of sash ;
41. Fitting a sash ; 42. Hotbed or skylight sash ; 43. Store sash ;
44. Blinds 69

CHAPTER V. STAIR BUILDING. — 45. Making measurements ; 46. Lay-
ing out stairs ; 47. Headroom ; 48. Stringers ; 49. Forms of
stairs; 50. Stair posts ; 51. Treads and risers ; 52. Circular stair
risers ; 53. Handrails ; 54. Balusters ; 55. Handrailing . . 88

CHAPTER VI. PAINTING, HARDWARE. — 56. Painting; 57. Hardware 121

CHAPTER VII. ESTIMATING. —58. Plans; 59. Location; 60. Method;
61. Excavations ; 62. Stonework ; 63. Brickwork ; 64. Carpentry ;
65. Roofing ; 66. Joinery ; 67. Plastering ; 68. Hardware ; 69. Paint-
ing ; 70. Heating and plumbing ; 71. Summarizing the estimates ;

72. Stock bill ; 73. The contractor 130

vii

X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

29. Joints of Door Jambs .58

30. Setting a Doorframe in Brickwork 58

31. A Fitted Door 60

32. Cutting in the Hinges . . . . . . . . .61

33. A. Loose-pin Butt ; B. Loose-joint Butt ..... 62

34. Cupboard Hinges .......... 63

35. A Kim Lock 63

36. A Mortise Lock 64

37. Placing the Striker or Latch Plate 64

38. Cutting down a Threshold ........ 65

39. Window Frame with a Single Sill 69

40. Window Frame with a Subsill and Blind Stop .... 71

41. Window Frame for a Brick House ; a Box Frame .... 72

42. Stool and Sash with Drip 73

43. Sash Members 75

44. Mortised and Coped Joint 76

45. Meeting Rail Joint .......... 76

46. The Strongest Form of Meeting Rail Joint . .... 77

47. Section of a Glazed Sash 77

48. Bedding Glass . . . 78

49. Setting Glass .78

50. Fitting Sash 81

51. Skylight Sash 83

52. Hotbed Glass Frames 84

53. Setting Glass in Store Windows 85

54. Method of Laying out a Stairway ....... 89

55. Method of Turning the Angles of a Stairway . . . .91

56. Laying out a Stringer 92

57. The Pitch Board 93

58. Intersection of Risers and Face Stringer .94

59. Fitting a Skirting Board ; Method 1 ...... 95

60. Fitting a Skirting Board ; Method 2 . . . . . .95

61. Fitting a Skirting Board ; Method 3 ...... 96

62. Construction of Buttress Stairs ; Method 1 ... 97

63. Construction of Buttress Stairs ; Method 2 98

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi

HO. PAGE

64. Methods of Building Stringers . . . . , . .98

65. , Methods of Fastening the Tops of Stringers 99

66. Dog-leg Stairs 100

67. Intersection of Carriages and Risers with the Section Post . •. 101

68. Location of Stair Posts 101

69. Laying out Stair Posts 103

70. Construction of Treads and Risers ..... , . 108

71. A Method of Finishing the Ends of Treads and of Mitering a Riser

and Face Scroll 109

72. Methods of Making a Curved Riser 110

73. Forms of Handrails Ill

74. Methods of Fastening Handrails to Posts . . . . .111

75. Methods of Splicing Handrails 112

76. Types of Balusters and Methods of Setting Them . . . .113
77- Handrailing 115

78. Diagram 166

79. Diagram , 169

INSIDE

CHAPTER I
HEATING, VENTILATION, SANITATION, REFRIGERATORS

1. Fireplaces and stoves. — (A.) The heating of a
building is not a part of the work of a carpenter, but he
should have some knowledge of the different methods of
heating in common use.

Our forefathers used fireplaces for both heating and cook-
ing, but as far as heating is concerned, they are unsatis-
factory, as the room quickly cools off if the fire dies down.
They are invaluable in the fall and spring, before and after
it is necessary to heat the entire house, and as an auxiliary
to the heating system during an extremely cold spell.

A fireplace furnishes a valuable means of ventilation,
and thus adds much to the healthfulness of the house, be-
sides imparting an air of cheerfulness. The center of the
decorative scheme of a room is generally the fireplace and
mantel.

(B.) Stoves are efficient as heaters, and may be regu-
lated to radiate as much or as little heat as desired, within
the capacity of the stove. They are inconvenient, and
cause much dirt to be brought into the room.

2. Hot-air heating. — (A.) A system of furnace heat-
ing properly installed usually gives satisfaction, though
there is an economical tendency to put in a furnace which
is not quite large enough for extremely cold weather.

2 ; INSII>E FINISHING

The furnace should be set low, and accordingly is often
placed in a pit in the cellar, in order to give as much pitch
to the conductor pipes as can be obtained, since a pipe
with less rise than one inch to each foot in length is very
apt to conduct heat unsatisfactorily, though the pipes
leading to the upper floors of a building will give satisfac-
tion with less pitch than those which heat the lower floor.

The furnace should be located very near the center of
the system, but nearer the side of the house from which
the prevailing cold winds come, to give as much pitch
as possible to pipes running in that direction, which
rarely conduct the heat as satisfactorily as others. These
conductor pipes should be connected at the furnace upon
the same level, or the highest pipes will take most of the
heat and destroy the efficiency of the others. The con-
ductor pipe leading to a room which is difficult to heat
is sometimes placed above the others, but not unless
it is very necessary.

(B.) A cold air duct of about half or two thirds of the
capacity of all the conductor pipes it is to supply should
connect the furnace chamber with the outside air, by means
of which, pure air is heated before being used to heat the
house. This cold air duct should be provided with a
damper or slide, by which the air supply may be regulated ;
if the best results are desired, ducts should be taken
from opposite sides of the house, as the direction of the
wind often has considerable effect upon the efficiency of a
furnace.

A register sometimes is placed in the floor or wall for the
purpose of conducting impurities out of doors ; this for-
merly was a common custom in the best houses, but is not
used so much at the present time, as partly heated air is

HEATING 3

wasted, and the expense of heating a house is increased.
Instead of allowing this air to pass out of the house, it is
usually conducted to the furnace chamber and reheated,
and enough pure cold air allowed to enter the furnace
chamber at the same time, to replace the vitiated ah-.
From the standpoint of theory this is not desirable, but
in an ordinary dwelling there are not enough impurities
to make this method hygienically objectionable, as the
opening of the doors and the crevices of the house will allow
enough pure air to enter to make the air in the house suit-
able for use.

Since most of the impurities in the air are burned out by
contact with the furnace drum, and since greater efficiency
of the furnace is obtained at less cost, this method is
being installed in nearly all of the best furnace-heated
houses now in construction, and many are being remodeled
to allow this system.

It is important that furnace pipes should be carefully
wrapped in asbestos paper to retain the heat and to con-
form to insurance regulations ; pipes which go in the
partitions should be put in place before the house is
lathed.

(C.) In a modern furnace, there is provision made for
a water pan in the air chamber. The water becomes heated
to a moderate temperature, so that moisture is given
off by evaporation, and carried through the house by the
movement of the heated ah*. Unless moisture is sup-
plied, the air will be so dry that it not only is undesir-
able for breathing, but will cause the joints of the finish
and of the furniture to open, the frame of the building
to shrink so much that the plastering will crack, and the
doors to warp and shrink so badly that they will not latch.

4 INSIDE FINISHING

3. Steam and hot-water heating. -- There are three
methods of heating, by some one of which all steam or
hot-water heating apparatus is operated.

(A.) The term direct heating is applied to the system
in which heat radiates from coils of pipes or radiators
directly into the room in which the appliance is located.

This method is used in places where little attention is
paid to ventilation, though it should not be installed where
there are to be many people, as the same air is simply
heated over and over again.

(B.) The term indirect heating is applied to the system
in which fresh air is heated by being passed through
steam or hot-water radiators located outside of the room
which is to be heated. Though not often so regarded,
a hot-air furnace is an example of this system, as the out-
side air is heated before it is conducted into the room.

In this method of heating, a system of ventilation is
frequently installed in connection with the steam or hot-
water system, by which the impure and cold air is re-
moved at the floor level, giving place to heated fresh air.

This method is sometimes applied by connecting the foul
or cold air ducts with the heating coils, as described in
furnace heating, and by allowing this partly heated -air
to be reheated more economically than if cold air were
heated to the desired temperature. It is obvious that
this system, which is in effect direct heating, is objec-
tionable where many people have to breathe the same air
over and over. This objection is to some extent removed
by the introduction of a certain amount of fresh air to
the heater to replace some of the vitiated air, as by
the indirect method. (See the preceding page.)

(C.) The third method is known as the direct-indirect,

HEATING 5

which, as its name implies, is a combination of the two
above described.

In this system the radiator is placed in the room to be
heated, and the air is reheated as often as it comes in con-
tact with the radiator. To furnish a certain amount of fresh
air, a duct is so located that air from the outside passes
into the room through the radiator, replacing impure air
which is removed through vents or foul-air ducts by nat-
ural or forced draft, the latter of which should be used if the
most reliable results are wanted. This method is used a
great deal in heating large halls, theaters, churches, etc.,
and gives quite satisfactory results, though the indirect
method with a system of forced draft ventilation is gen-
erally considered the best device for heating large build-
ings ; its expense, however, prevents its universal adoption.

The term direct, indirect, or direct-indirect, as applied
to a radiator, refers to the relation of the radiator to the
air supply and the room to be heated, and not to any
peculiarity of construction or circulation of steam or hot
water in the radiator itself.

4. Steam heating. — A steam-heating system may be
installed after the house is built ; this is often a great ad-
vantage, but as it is expensive to maintain fora small house,
its principal use is to heat large buildings ; in many loca-
tions, steam is conducted by the central-heating-plant
system to all of the buildings within a radius of several
hundred feet.

In places where steam power is generated, the radia-
tors may be heated by exhaust steam, and the expense of
heating, while the exhaust is being used, will be practically
nothing. This is the method followed wherever possible.
If direct steam is used, it is at a very low pressure, from

6 INSIDE FINISHING

three to six pounds being sufficient to send the steam
through the pipes and insure the return of the condensa-
tion to the boiler.

Steam radiators are connected by two systems; the
one-pipe system, in which there is only one pipe to supply
the steam, and to return the condensation to the boiler
to be reheated, and the two-pipe system, in which each
radiator or coil has a supply pipe, and a return to the main
return pipe. Either system, if properly installed, will give
satisfactory results. In neither system should there be
pockets or sagging pipes in which the returning condensa-
tion may be trapped, as this will prevent the system from
doing its work and, if the pipe should freeze, a new piece of
pipe would have to be put in. In neither system should
there be any part which cannot be drained.

5. Hot-water heating. - - The initial cost of a system of
hot-water heating is greater than that of a steam system,
as more radiating surface is required, but it is less expensive
in operation. As in steam heating, the pipes and radi-
ators may be installed after the house is built. It is a
very popular system for use in dwellings, as it requires but
little care besides keeping the fires, which need less fuel
than any other equivalent system.

In the pipes of this, as of the steam system, there should
be no pockets or drops, and both should be so built that
they can be thoroughly drained, to prevent freezing if the
house is to be left vacant.

6. Ventilation. — Ventilation forms a part of most modern
heating systems. Ventilation consists of more than fur-
nishing a sufficient supply of fresh air ; it should provide
also for removing the air which has been breathed, or
which has been polluted by coming in contact with unclean

VENTILATION 7

bodies or clothing. An opening in the ceiling of a room
is not satisfactory, if it is the only means of ventilation,
as it allows a great deal of heat to escape. A ventilator
of this sort should be used judiciously, especially in cold
weather ; if a building or auditorium intended to accom-
modate large gatherings is constructed properly, the ceil-
ing will be high enough to allow foul air to be well above
the heads of the people, and the ventilator need not
ordinarily be opened at times when the loss of heat would
be a serious inconvenience.

The heat of an indirect system usually enters a room
near the ceiling, and in its downward passage carries with
it impurities and the most poisonous gases. These de-
scend to the floor, and unless removed, will accumulate
until the air is absolutely poisonous. To provide an easy
exit for these gases, registers should be placed in the
floor, or in the wall near the floor, through which the
gases may be conducted out of doors by one of two
methods, the natural draft, or the forced draft. The for-
mer allows gases to follow their own inclination, and while
ventilators are made which, by various devices, accel-
erate the movement, the efficiency of the system depends,
to a great extent, upon the condition of the outside atmos-
phere, which, if dead and heavy, checks the air current.

The forced draft is independent of the atmospheric con-
ditions, and a current of air may always be maintained, as
the draft is caused by a fan driven at a high rate of speed,
which draws the impure air from the inside of the building,
and forces it out of doors. This air, of course, is replaced
by pure heated air, or in warm w^eather by artificially
cooled air. Thus the air is kept continually in motion.

The contractor in building a house generally will sublet

8 INSIDE FINISHING

the heating and ventilating, as this work, in order to insure
satisfactory results, should be planned and installed by
men who have made it a study and who are familiar with
all the appliances and methods which will assist in mak-
ing it efficient and satisfactory.

7. Plumbing. — It is the usual custom that the carpen-
ter should do ^11 of the cutting necessary to allow the
plumber to lay pipes and to set his work properly. The
soil pipes and all others which are to be laid in the walls
or floors should be in place before the house is lathed or
the floors laid.

The carpenter should not attempt to say whether the
work is properly done or not unless he has had considerable
experience with plumbers' work ; if he is responsible for
the work done upon a house for which there is no architect,
he should engage some competent person to inspect the
work thoroughly before it is covered. A guarantee from
a responsible plumber is often accepted. In most cities
where there are sewer and water systems, there is an
official inspector of plumbing, who should be given every
opportunity to look over work, for if a faulty place is dis-
covered after the house is finished, considerable expense
and annoyance may be caused in making it right.

That part of. the work which is out of sight is most
important ; no elaborate fittings can compensate for im-
perfect plumbing in the wall or under the floor.

8. Sanitation. — (A.) The disposal of sewage is always
one of the gravest problems to consider in the development
of a community. The cities upon or near the seacoast
have the nearest to ideal conditions for disposing of their
sewage, as it is simply emptied into the ocean or one of its
tributaries, generally by gravitation, and the action of the

SANITATION 9

tides will carry the matter out to sea, where it is scattered
by the ocean currents, and in no case is there any danger
of the water supply being affected, as salt water is not used
for domestic purposes.

Any lake or river, no matter how large, if it continually
receives sewage in any quantity, will eventually be con-
taminated.

It is not the purpose of this book to discuss the efficiency
of the many various systems of disposing of the sewage of
inland cities, so we will consider merely the aspects of sani-
tation with which the carpenter has to deal.

(B.) The privy, which is in common use in rural dis-
tricts, is prohibited by law in modern towns and cities,
where the houses are close together and where a sewer is
provided. Even where there is plenty of room, care must
be used that the privy is not placed where there is the
slightest danger of affecting the water supply, or where
it will drain into a brook from which cattle have to drink.
It should be located always below the water supply if pos-
sible. A privy is usually very obnoxious in warm weather,
even at some distance from the house, but it may be
made inoffensive by scattering, in the vault, dry earth,
which will prevent odors from spreading.

Chamber slops should not be thrown into a privy, but
instead should be thrown upon the grass, or in any place
where the sun can do its work of purifying.

(C.) Where there is no sewerage system and privies are
in common use, the dry earth closet is a simple and efficient
method of dealing with this problem. The closet should
be light, well ventilated, and fly-proof. The equipment
may consist of a box of dry earth or road dust, to be used
as often as the closet is, or it may be an elaborate

10 INSIDE FINISHING

arrangement, in which the earth is thrown in above and
handled with a slide, as it is needed. A closet of this sort
may be built as close to the house as desired, and if prop-
erly cared for, will never be objectionable.

If this form of closet is used, there should be provided
a place, perfectly dry and large enough to contain a suffi-
cient quantity of dry earth to care for the privy during
rainy weather and the winter months. This should be
kept full of road dust, which is well suited for this pur-
pose. The receptacle should be a well made, water-tight,
movable box with handles, so it may be easily emptied,
though an ordinary vault may be used.

(D.) Water-closets are not possible in all localities, not
only on account of the absence of a sewerage system, but
because the soil is not adaptable to the construction of a
cesspool, which is simply a deep hole, loosely walled to keep
the earth from caving in, but which will allow the contents
to seep away through the soil. This is connected by
a drain to the house, and is the means of disposing of
sewage and household waste in many places where
there is a sandy subsoil and where there is no danger of
contaminating the water supply. It is not considered a
system suitable for general use, even in isolated places, as
a well a long distance away may be affected ; nevertheless,
it is used in many places where there is a deep sandy soil.

A method of disposing of sewage, known as the sub-
surface system, is sometimes used in localities where there
are good natural drainage facilities. In this system, the
sewage or other household waste is conducted to tanks
in which the solid matter is precipitated, and the liquid is
distributed through a series of drains laid under the surface
of the ground, from which it finds its way to some natural

SANITATION 11

watercourse. This is a complex matter to x discuss, and
we shall not do more than mention it.

Another method known as the " Septic " consists of beds
of sand located in some isolated place, lower than the area
which is drained, in which the sewage is exposed to the
action of the sun and the air. This method is being used
with satisfactory results in small inland communities and
by institutions.

(E.) Sink drains should carry as far as possible from
the house, and should have as much pitch as can be
obtained, not less than 1' in a run of 40', for a 4" drain tile,
which is as small as should be used. Under the sink there
always should be a trap made perfectly tight with solder.
If more than a sink enters the drain, the work of con-
necting should be done by a plumber, for if improperly
done, the effects may be very serious.

A drain should have as few bends as possible in it ; the
bottom should be laid straight, or in straight sections, re-
gardless of the surface of the ground, and low enough to
be well below the frost line.

The end of the drain should empty in a sandy place upon
a side hill if possible, as high as the nature of the ground
will allow, or otherwise the outlet will freeze in winter and
possibly destroy several feet of the end of the drain.

In rural districts the drain often empties upon the top
of the ground at some distance from the house, and for
ordinary conditions in the country there is little to criti-
cize in this, provided there is no danger of affecting the
water supply, as the sun is a great purifier. The drain tile
should be laid in cement, with perfectly tight joints, and
without low places, or rough cement on the inside of the
pipes, to catch the matter from the sink.

INSIDE FINISHING

g. Refrigerators. — (A.) Refrigeration upon a large scale
has become the work of the scientist and the engineer, and
we shall not discuss the problem, as it includes very little
in which the carpenter would be interested, but we will
discuss the construction of an ice refrigerator suitable for
family use, or for use in a meat market, or wherever one
is needed.

(B.) A refrigerator operates upon the principle that air
of a low temperature will descend, and that of a high tem-
perature will rise if both are confined in the same com-
partment.

To make an efficient refrigerator the walls should be air-
tight, and the doors fitted closely and forced tightly into
their places. The walls should be made of two or more
thicknesses of ceiling, with air spaces between in which
L the air is perfectly dead. In order to

insure this, there must be studding every
18" or 24", as the stock will work to the
x-if best advantage. The ceiling in every case
should be laid upon dressed studding of an
even thickness, say If" X 2f", and a good
x-4\i grade of sheathing paper laid between the
stud and the ceiling.

Figure 1 shows two methods of building
_ u the walls of a refrigerator. At a is shown
FIG. i.— REFRIGER- the method of constructing the wall. Ceil-
ing is laid upon the studding or framework
of the refrigerator, with sheathing paper (b) between it
and the studding, leaving a dead air space (c) between the
two layers of sheathing paper ; this is an efficient means of
preventing the inside of a refrigerator from being affected
by the outside temperature. The space c may be filled

REFRIGERATORS

with shavings, which will settle vertically unless filled
under pressure. This is often done, but it accomplishes
little, or no more than does a dead air space.

At d, a piece of sheathing paper (e) is tacked tightly upon
the small pieces of wood (x) which surround each space
between the studs ; this makes an extra air space to help
make the walls impenetrable.

The walls of refrigerators are sometimes insulated with
hair felting, or with mineral wool, which, if kept dry, will
make an excellent wall to resist the passage of air from
the inside or outside of the refrigerator.

For convenience, the ice door should open from the front
of the refrigerator and be of a size to admit as large a piece
of ice as possible ; if the door is in the top, the ice will
not melt so rapidly.

The doors and jambs should be made and fitted by some
method similar to that shown in Fig. 2, by making as

FIG. 2. — REFRIGERATOR DOOR AND LOCK.

nearly an air-tight joint as possible at a by means of a felt
or rubber weather strip, and by forcing the door into its
place by a lever lock (6), placed upon the outside of the
door. There are several kinds upon the market, but the
one illustrated at 6 is efficient and economical.

INSIDE FINISHING

Figure 3 shows the construction of an ice chamber, which
should occupy from one fifth to one third of the cubical
contents of the refrigerator. At b is seen the ice rack, the
top of which should be set level. The floor of the ice

chamber (c) should be set
at a pitch so that the cold
air will have plenty of
room to find its way to the
cold air duct (d) through
which it is carried some
distance below the bottom
of the ice floor. As the
air absorbs gases and heat
from the foods, its temper-
ature rises, and it passes
through the warm air flue
(e) and into the ice cham-
ber (w) where the gases
condense upon the ice and
pass off in water form
through the waste pipe (/)
which has a trap at the end
of it, to prevent the escape of cold air. The ice chamber
should be lined with galvanized iron, which is very
durable, but in the lower-priced refrigerators, zinc is much
used.

This is, in substance, the method of the construction
and operation of ice refrigerators. Other things being
equal, the one which gives the freest circulation of air is
the one which will give the best results, both in economy
of ice and in the preservation of its contents.

In building a refrigerator, the workman cannot be too

FIG. 3. — THE ICE CHAMBER.

REFRIGERATORS

careful in making all joints as nearly air-tight as possible.
It is the poorest economy to save on the price of the re-
frigerator by omitting anything which will tend to make it
air proof, as the additional cost of the ice unnecessarily
used will soon be more than the extra cost of building the
refrigerator properly.

10. Construction of an ice house. — Figure 4 indicates
the method by which an ice house may be constructed.

•^-•^-.-.z:

FIG. 4. — ICE HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.

The ground upon which the building is to stand should be
well drained with a tile drain, as at c, not less than 12"
below the surface, and in rows not more than 6' apart.
The site should be so graded that no surface water will run
over the floor after the building is completed. A slope
in the ground upon which the house stands will assist in
the drainage.

16 INSIDE FINISHING

The house should be large enough to allow at least one
foot of sawdust, shavings, or hay under and on each side
of the desired quantity of ice, which should be packed in a
solid mass, with nothing between the cakes. Hay is pre-
ferred for the outside packing, as it may be handled more
easily than either sawdust or shavings.

It is the custom of many, after the ice house is filled, to
deluge the mass of ice with water, thus making nearly a
compact mass, and preventing the circulation of air as
much as possible. After the house is filled, the ice should
be covered with at least a foot of hay.

The building should be covered with a tight roof, and
the gables boarded up, with a door (a) at each end for
ventilation. These should never be entirely closed during
warm weather. Doors for convenience in filling and empty-
ing should be made at 6, 6, b. In large ice houses, the fill-
ing and emptying is done by machinery and inclined

planes.

SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

1. Is a fireplace satisfactory for heating a room? For what is it
chiefly valuable? What are the objections to stoves as a method of
heating ?

2. What is the general tendency in installing a furnace ? At what
level should a furnace be set ? How is this sometimes done ? Why is
this necessary ? What is the least pitch or rise a conductor pipe should
have ? Which pipes generally have less pitch ? At what point should
a furnace be located in regard to the heating system of the house ? How
should the prevailing winds affect the location of the furnace ? Why ?
What should be the capacity of a cold air duct ? How is the supply of
cold air regulated ? How is the cool air often taken from the house and
used again ? Is this a perfectly hygienic arrangement ? Why is it a
satisfactory method for dwelling houses ? How should the conductor
pipes be treated to retain the heat ? When should the pipes be put in

REFRIGERATORS 17

the partitions ? What provision is made to prevent the air from being
too dry? What are the objections to very dry ah-?

3. What is meant by direct heating? Describe it. In what kinds
of places is it used ? For what places is it unfit ? What is meant by
indirect heating? Describe it. How is this method of heating used
in connection with a ventilating system? What is the objection to
conducting the partly heated air back to the heater ? What is the ad-
vantage? How is it made less objectionable? What is meant by
direct-indirect heating? Describe it. In what sort of places is this
method of heating used? Which is considered the best of the three
methods ?

4. What is one advantage of a steam-heating system for an old
house ? In what sort of buildings is it generally used ? Why is it un-
desirable for a small house ? What methods of radiating may be used ?
What is generally the heating medium for the indirect method ? What
is the advantage of a steam-power plant as regards heating ? What is
the common pressure of a direct steam-heating system ? What are the
two systems of connecting radiators ? What is the objection to sagging
pipes ?

5. Which is the more expensive system to install, steam or hot-
water ? Which is the more popular for dwellings ? Why ?

6. What are the requirements of a complete system of ventilation ?
Why should a room to contain a large number of people be high?
Where is the heat of an indirect system usually conducted into a room ?
How are the poisonous gases removed from the room ? In what part
of the room do these gases gather? What are the two methods
employed in removing vitiated air from the room? Describe the
natural draft. Describe the forced draft. Compare them.

7. In what way is it customary for the carpenter to assist the Dlumber ?
When should the pipes in the walls be laid? What should the car-
penter do in regard to the inspection of the plumbing? What is the
most important part of the plumbing ?

8. What cities have the best system of sewerage ? What are the
advantages to these cities? What is the objection to discharging
sewage into a lake or river ? Where should a privy be located ? How
may a privy be made inoffensive? How should chamber slops be
disposed of? Describe the kind of house necessary for an efficient
dry earth closet. Describe an earth closet receptacle. Describe a

18 INSIDE FINISHING

cesspool system of sewerage. What is the objection to this method
of disposing of sewage ? What kind of soil is best for a cesspool ?
Given an outline of the subsurface drainage system. What should be
the pitch of a sink drain ? What should be its size ? How should
the drain tile be laid ? Should the end of the drain rest upon the
ground ? Why ?

9. What is the principle of the operation of a refrigerator? De-
scribe the construction of the walls of a refrigerator. What is a neces-
sary condition of the walls ? How should the doors be fitted in order
to be as nearly air-tight as possible ? Describe the interior construc-
tion of a refrigerator. Describe the circulation of air in a refrigerator.
Compare the different locations of the ice door. What is poor economy
in building a refrigerator ?

10. How should the ground under an ice house be treated? How
should surface water be kept out? Describe the construction of an
ice house. How much sawdust should surround the ice ? How should
ice be packed in an ice house ? How should an ice house be ventilated ?

CHAPTER II

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH

ii. Floor laying. — (A.) Floor laying is a branch of
carpentry which, in some localities, is done almost en-
tirely by specialists who can do a far greater amount than
can the all-round man. Figure 5 shows the kinds of floors
in most common use, the matched
(a), and the square-edged (6). The
former of these always should be
blind nailed ; that is, the nails should
be1 driven into the edge as shown
at c, with a nail set ; the entire floor
may then be laid with no nail heads
showing.

This is the method by which
the best floors are laid, though it
is slower than the square-edged
method, since the floor has to be
laid one board at a time. Also it
is a more expensive floor, as considerable lumber is used in
making the tongue for matching the boards.

A piece of 3J" matched flooring or ceiling is made from
a board 3|" wide, but its covering surface is only 3", as
shown at a, Fig. 6. On account of the tendency of the
grain of wood to straighten itself in drying, boards will
frequently have " kinks " or short bends in them, due

FIG. 5. — MATCHED AND
SQUARE-EDGED FLOORING.

20 INSIDE FINISHING

to cross-grained places ; in order to straighten boards
of this sort, it is often necessary, in matching them, to
make their faces J" or 1" less in width instead of only
J", and \" less in thickness instead of \" ', than the sawed

dimensions, indicated
in Fig. 6, which were
based upon a straight
board. Therefore it is
customary to allow one

quarter or one third of the floor area for waste in match-
ing and in cutting out imperfections ; while for a square-
edged floor an allowance of one fifth or one fourth is
sufficient, as there is no waste in matching. (See 6, Fig. 6.)
Usually it is not necessary that matched flooring should
be nailed at every joist ; an 8d floor nail every second or
third joist is sufficient for narrow flooring; for wide ma-
terial the nailings may have to be closer to hold the floor
down properly. The best grades of factory matched
flooring are usually bored along the edge to allow nails
to be driven without splitting the piece. If these holes
do not come over a joist, the nails will generally hold
well enough if driven into the under floor only, as they
enter the wood at such an angle.

For a very nice floor it may be necessary to smooth,
scrape, and sandpaper the boards after they are laid,
though if the flooring has been well made at the mill, it
will be enough for common work to smooth the few joints
which may not have come down perfectly.

If paper is to be laid under the wearing floor, it should
be laid from the side from which the flooring is laid, or else
at right angles, so that the edges of the paper will not
curl up and prevent the boards from coming to a joint.*

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH

If a floor is to have a natural finish, the carpenter
always should select wood of the same color. In no other
place is thoroughly seasoned stock more necessary.

It is always best to lay a floor with as narrow boards as
possible, as the shrinking effect of seasoning is thereby
minimized ; if wide boards are used, the cracks will be
more open, and therefore more noticeable.

In laying matched flooring, much depends in getting a
straight start. If the wearing floor is laid upon an under-

FIG. 7. — LAYING THE FIRST PIECE OF FLOORING.

floor, which is covered with sheathing paper, and if the
base is cut down on top of it, as at a, Fig. 7, this is an
easy thing to do, as the first two or three pieces may be
nailed perfectly straight ; but, if the base has been put
on, as in 6, the starting piece (c) should be carefully
scribed to the base, the grooved edge being the one
fitted. A straight piece must be selected for the first
because a crooked one would make trouble in laying
the next few boards. One with a bruised, grooved edge
should be selected if there is such, as the bruise may be
cut off in scribing, while it might destroy the piece for use
elsewhere in the floor.
' If a quarter round, or shoe strip is to be used, as at d,

22 INSIDE FINISHING

Fig. 7, this fitting may be dispensed with, and the starting
piece laid straight. A strip of any kind at the joint be-
tween the base and the floor always seems to hide a bad
joint, and it is rarely used upon the best work.

If a floor is to be hand smoothed, time may be saved by
using care in selecting the grain, and by laying as many
pieces as possible of the same grain together, then several
more of grain running in the opposite direction. This
can be done only in a general way, but it is good practice.

(B.) A square-edged floor should not be laid one board
at a time, but a " bay/' two or three feet in width, of the
floor boards should be cut to the same length, and wedged
so tightly that each joint will be perfect, as shown at d,
Fig. 5. Enough nails are driven to hold the boards in place
while the process is repeated until the entire floor is cut
down ; in doing this, the different bays of flooring should
be cut to different lengths, breaking joints with the ad-
joining bay at least 32", or the distance between centers
of two joists; this will prevent a straight joint from ex-
tending across the floor and will add to the stiffness of the
building. It is best to select boards for each bay of the
same aggregate width as the boards they join endways.
Any small spaces left open on account of the material not
exactly fitting can be filled in after the floor is nailed.
In heavy buildings, it is quite a common custom to lay
the flooring diagonally, to add rigidity to the structure.

When the boards are all cut and laid, marks should be
made with a chalk line or pencil, by a straightedge, to
indicate the exact location of the joists as a guide in driv-
ing nails. The young workman must learn to keep his
left hand full of nails and one nail in the wood all of the
time ; with a little practice, one at a time may be picked

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 23

out by the thumb and middle finger, and held for the
first blow of the hammer.

12. Wood for finishing. — In selecting the inside finish
for a house, care should be used to sort the different colors
.as much as possible ; though the same grade and the same
kind of wood may be used, some of it will be darker or
lighter than the rest. The dark wood should be used in
certain rooms, and the light wood in others.

All of the exposed finish of a room should be of the same
wood, though the doors upon very good work are often,
and upon common work are generally, of a wood different
from that of the rest of the room. Almost any kind of
wood may be used for inside finish, provided the desired
dimensions can be obtained and the appearance is satis-
factory, since very little wear comes upon it. Certain
kinds of woods, as spruce, gum, and buckeye, do not hold
their shape well unless very strongly fastened. Basswood
is used to some extent, but it shrinks and swells con-
siderably unless it has been well seasoned.

The woods commonly used are the pines, oaks, walnuts,
whitewood, or poplar, red birch, black gum, ash, chestnut,
cherry, cypress, redwood, maple, sycamore, and a few
other woods, the use of which is largely local. Besides
these, imported woods are used to some extent, chief
among them being mahogany.

The best material should be selected, which should in
every instance be thoroughly kiln dried, especially for
mitered finish.

13. Casings. — (A.) The tops of all the openings of a
room should be on the same line. This often is accom-
plished by putting a transom in over the doors, but the
rule is disregarded as much as any other rule in carpentry,

INSIDE FINISHING

even upon the best work, as it affects only the appearance
of the room and in no way the comfort of the house.

(B.) Figure 8 shows three styles of finish for the casings
of doors and of window frames. The mitered (a) is the
style generally favored upon the best class of work. The

FIG. 8. — TYPES OF FINISH.

window casing and stool finish are shown at b. The end
of the stool at 2, and of the apron at y, should be mitered,
or returned upon themselves ; this applies to all forms of
finish.

The corner block finish (c) is used commonly, as it is

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 25

more easily put in place than the mitered finish and more
ornamental than the plain finish, shown at d ; if the ma-
terial shrinks or swells, the defect is not so evident as
in the mitered finish. The corner block should be f "
thicker, and \" longer and wider than the side casing
or architrave (w), and the header (x).

The plain finish (d) is used in many places where it is
difficult to obtain moldings, though unimportant rooms
of good buildings are often finished in this style. The
header or lintel (v) should be J" thicker than the side
casing (r) and should project equally at each end.

A plinth (/) 9" or 10" high should be used to finish the
bottoms of the side casings of all forms of door finish,
to give a place against which the baseboard (u) and mold-
ing (t) may stop, if the latter is separate from the base-
board. For economy the plinth is often omitted, and the
base and molding stopped against the architrave or side
casing. The plinth may be of a straight piece, but upon
the best work it conforms to the shape of the casing, as at s.

If a plinth projects more than \" beyond the face of
the baseboard, it is a good plan to cut the front corner of
the bottom end off about T3g" from the floor, and back to
the line of the base, to admit a carpet, instead of cutting it,
or leaving a bunch where it comes against the plinth.

Door casings always should be set back to show TV'
or f ", as shown at h, Fig. 8 ; it is best never to finish flush.
The fillet or corner thus left adds to the appearance of the
work, for, if the casing were made perfectly flush with the
door jamb, the slightest difference would be noticed. It
also allows the latch of the lock to swing clear of the finish
upon which it otherwise might make an ugly scratch. An
exception to this rule is in putting the finish around win-

26 INSIDE FINISHING

dows, where the edge of the casing should be flush with the
inside of the pulley style, as shown at .;', Fig. 8; the stop
bead (A;) hides the joint.

Casings never should be spliced, for in every instance
an unsatisfactory job results, as the joint is certain to open
or start if the wood shrinks or swells.

In putting up any kind of trim or standing finish, the
workman will realize that it pays to be sure that the frames
are set square and plumb, and that the ends of the casings
are cut perfectly square and true both ways, and fastened
exactly to their places.

If every piece is set accurately, the work of finishing is
greatly reduced, as upon common work it is usually satis-
factory to make a joint without planing.

(C.) In putting on the corner block , as in many other
things which vary in different localities, it usually is ex-
pedient to follow the local custom. It should be put on
with the grain running the same way as the header, of
which it is a part. Generally it is the custom to put it
on so that it is a part of the side casing ; the only ad-
vantage of this is that the end wood does not show.

Again, no workman should cut the header of a plain door
casing between the side casings, as that would give the
opening an appearance of weakness which should be
avoided, even where strength is unnecessary. Also, if
the grain of the block is set vertically, the shrinking is apt
to open the joint between it and the header, while if the
grain of the block runs horizontally, the open joint will
come between the block and the side casing, where it is
less conspicuous.

14. Moldings. — (A.) Moldings are indispensable to the
carpenter in putting the finishing touches upon any piece

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH

of work. It is obvious that a molding which is intended
to be used in a certain place might be entirely unsuitable
for use elsewhere, for instance: the band molding, b of
Fig. 9, would be entirely out of place if used instead of the

FIG. 9. — MOLDINGS.

cornice or crown molding which is shown at ra. Thus it
will be seen that the contour of the molding is not the im-
portant consideration, but its relation to, and the shape
of the other surfaces of, the piece upon which it is molded.
Lumber dealers keep in stock the standard forms of
moldings, among which may be found types which are
suitable for every purpose for which moldings are used
upon buildings.

Those in most common use are shown in Fig. 9. The
band molding (a) is used for the finishing member on the
outside of a mitered casing: b is used sometimes for a
band molding to form a rabbet upon a window frame,
against which the siding is cut, to form a very tight joint.

INSIDE FINISHING

The base molding (c) is nailed into the angle formed by
the baseboard and the plastered wall, and the Up molding

(d) is for the same pur-
pose, though rarely used.
The molding should be
nailed to the top of the
baseboard, and not to
the wall, as otherwise the
shrinking of the base-
board will open the joint
between it and the mold-
ing. The outside corners of the base molding should be
mitered, and the inside corners coped, as at A, Fig. 10.

The cap molding (e) finishes the top of a dado, or some
such place.

The bed mold (/) is used to fill a corner or as part of a
large cornice. In cutting the miters upon this type, the

FIG

10. — COPED JOINTS OF BASE AND
PICTURE MOLDINGS.

FIG. 11. — CUTTING THE MITER OF CROWN OR SPRUNG MOLDINGS.

molding should be held in the miter box as shown in
Fig. 11, using care that the edge (a) is, throughout, the
same distance from the back of the box (6).

Panel moldings are raised, as shown at g, Fig. 9, or sunk,
as shown at h, and nailed to the frame of the panel work,
as shown at j ; if nailed to the panel, which may shrink,
the molding would be pulled off the rails, making an

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 29

unsightly place upon the face of the panel work, while if
properly done, the panel will shrink independently of the
frame or molding.

The distance between the back (ri) of the lip molding,
and the under side of the lip (I) should be sV", or less,
smaller than the panel " sinkage," or the distance between
the face of the panel work (I) and the face of the panel (o).
This will allow the lip of the molding to fit closely against
the face of the panel work, and will compensate for any
slight inaccuracy. In mitering a lip molding, a small
piece the size of the sinkage of the panel (I, o, Fig. 9) should
be used as shown at c, Fig. 11, to allow the molding to be
sawed at just the angle at which it finally lies.

A panel sometimes is laid out upon a flat surface by
means of an astragal molding, shown at k, Fig. 9 ; it is
used also to cover an open joint in a flat surface, and is
valuable for a variety of uses.

The crown molding or sprung molding (m) is used as the
highest or crown member of a cornice. Moldings of this
type are suitable for the cornices of cases of shelves, closets,
etc., and should be cut in a miter box as shown at a, b,
Fig. 11.

The quarter round (n) is used, especially upon the cheap-
est work, to cover the joint in a corner, if the pieces which
form the angle do not come together. It
also is used as in Fig. 12, to put up par-
titions ; one piece (a) is laid first and the a/
ceiling partition (b) nailed against it; the FlG 12 _USEOF
quarter round (c) is afterwards nailed into THE QUARTER
the corner to cover the joint.

The scotia or cove (p, Fig. 9) is used for purposes simi-
lar to those of the quarter round, and with other small

30 INSIDE FINISHING

moldings for the purpose of building up large cornices.
It is also placed under the nosing of a stair tread, as at r,
under a dado cap, or wherever a finish under a cap or a
molding is needed.

The nosing (r) is generally the edge finish of a stair tread,
to round the edge of a board, a cap, or for similar purposes.

The half round (s) is applicable to many of the same
purposes as the astragal. The bead, shown at t, is used
upon ceiling, and wherever it is necessary to hide a joint.
Stop beads (u) are used upon window frames to hold the
lower sash in place ; they are not confined to that design, as
they may be shaped like v, or w, or any other desirable form.

Room or picture molding, as shown at x, Fig. 9, is fitted
around a room near the ceiling, forming the lower edge of
the frieze, or border. Its use is to support picture hooks,
as shown. Its outside angles should be mitered, but the
inside angles should be coped, as shown at B, Fig. 10.

(B.) Most of the moldings above described are mitered
at both the inside and outside corners, except the base

moldings, the room moldings,
^§§^1^2 ^^^ and other small moldings which

ii/////nr.i i/t/fiin^... ^~<

should be coped at the inside
angles, as described above, and
shown in Fig. 10.

(C.) Specially designed cor-
nices are frequently built up,
FIG. is. -A BUILT-UP CORNICE. as shown in Fig. 13. They

are made of ogees (a), fillets (6), hollows (c), dentils (d), and
quirks (e). Different combinations of these details will
furnish a great variety of larger moldings. They may be
made of narrow pieces and fastened to the face of the
work if desired, as indicated by the dotted line.

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 31

(D.) Nearly all of these moldings are modeled from
those used by the architects and builders of the temples and
public buildings which the Greeks and Romans erected.

There are eight distinct types of these moldings capable
of great variation without losing their distinctive form.
These forms are shown in Fig. 14 ; at a is seen the ovolo
or echinus, which is the
parent of the quarter
round ; at b the talon
and quirk, or bird's beak
molding, which should be a
used where it seems to
support something as the
shape suggests ; at c the
cyma recta ; at d the cyma

FIG. 14. — CLASSIC MOLDINGS.

reversa or ogee moldings ;

at e the cavetlo, hollow, or cove. The last three appear
weak and should be used where they will seem to sup-
port no weight, as the upper member of a cornice, for
instance.

The torus (/) (bead, round, or thumb molding) and the
astragal (g) should appear to go around, as if to bind to-
gether. The scotia (h) and the fillet (i) are used as inter-
mediates, to separate one member of a compound molding
from another, and to give variety to a large cornice, or to
form a break in a wide, flat surface.

The ovolo and the talon generally should be located
above, and the scotia below, the eye.

The contour of moldings of the best periods of archi-
tecture is elliptical, not round, and in making and design-
ing moldings, the workman should always strive for a
graceful elliptical curve, instead of an arc of a circle.

32 INSIDE FINISHING

A comparison of the two forms will show the difference in
appearance.

In general, important moldings above the line of the eye
extend upwards, and those below the eye extend down-
wards, from the vertical plane at an angle of about 45°,
so that no important member of the molding will be out
of the line of vision.

(E.) A baseboard is usually 8" wide, and should be well
seasoned ; it should not be put on until the plastering is
thoroughly dry, or it will curl off, the moisture in the plas-
tering swelling the back of the board, while the front
remains dry.

When a single floor is laid, the baseboard is fitted upon
the top of the floor boards, and a quarter round or shoe
strip similar to n or w of Fig. 9 is nailed on to cover the
joint, as at d, Fig. 7.

If the shoe strip is nailed to the baseboard, the shrinkage
of the floor and baseboard will show a crack under the
shoe strip, but if it is nailed to the floor, the shoe strip will
follow the floor, and move with it, thus showing no joint.

If it is desired to dispense with the shoe strip, the base-
board should be nailed to the wall after the under floor is
laid, and the wearing, or top floor, fitted to the baseboard,
as at c, Fig. 7. Care should be used in fitting the ends of
the flooring to the baseboard, for if one floor board is
forced too much, it will push the base away from the one
which was laid before it.

In cutting the baseboard down, the outside corners are
mitered, and the inside corners cut square and butted upon
common work ; but upon the best class of work they should
be housed, as shown at a, Fig. 15, to insure that the season-
ing and settling of the building will not open the joint.

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH

If it is necessary to splice moldings, the joint should be
made in the least conspicuous place ; to make the fewest
possible splices, the long
pieces should be fitted first.
These splices may be made
with either a butt or a
miter joint, the latter of
which is preferred by many
workmen.

(F.) The quality of the

Work done with moldings FlG- 15. — HOUSING CORNERS OF BASE-

i i BOARDS.

depends to a great extent

upon the condition of the moldings used, and the selec-
tion of the material from which they are made. The
lumber should be straight and straight-grained, and kept
lying straight. After the moldings are '' stuck," that is,
made, they must be handled with great care, or the cor-
ners and fillets will be bruised.
One of the earmarks of a good
workman is that he always
leaves square corners ; no
rough, or "spalled " (rubbed),
or broken edges should be
permitted, but all corners and
angles should be perfectly
smooth and accurate.

15. Molding joints. --The
curve of the joint between a
straight and circling piece of molding may be found by the
intersection method : place the moldings in their exact
relation to each other, and mark the extreme points
(a, 6, Fig. 16). To ascertain c by another method than the

FIG. 16. — JOINTING A STRAIGHT
AND A CURVED MOLDING.

34 INSIDE FINISHING

" cut and try," lay out the moldings upon a board with
a pencil, indicating a center line of each piece, and their
intersection as c. The arc of a circle drawn through a, b, c,
will give the sweep of the joint. Draw the chord of the
arc of the j oint as indicated 'by the dotted line, and meas-
ure the distance of its altitude at c ; this must be trans-
ferred to each piece which is to form the joint. Upon a
large molding, it may be easier to find the sweep by the
well-known problem of constructing a circle from three
given points.

1 6. The dado. — (A.) Woodworking machinery has
made the construction of panel work, similar to the types
indicated in Fig. 17, a simple matter. A dado of matched
or beaded ceiling may be easily and economically made,
and is often used in places where a more expensive dado
is unnecessary. A ceiling dado is made upon the work,
but paneled dado is usualty made in a shop which has
all of the appliances necessary for doing the work eco-
nomically and well.

The measurements for dado should be taken at the
building after the partitions are set, and it is possible to
locate accurately all the openings and angles.

The different types of panel work, the names of their
members, and the methods of construction in common use
are illustrated in Fig. 17. At a is shown a plain panel,
and at b a raised panel ; either type may be used upon
the cheapest or the best work, depending upon the effect
desired. The grooves for the panels in the different
members of the frame are usually T9<r" deep to accommo-
date \" of the panel and to allow for any possible swelling.

The stiles (c) should be grooved, usually upon one edge
only, to receive the panels and the ends of the rails d, e,f.

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH

J Raised fane/. P/a/'n Pane/, P/ain Raised Pane/, %a/sed Panel
Mo/ded. Pane/ Mo/ded. iiaMo/d/nq. \—

FIG. 17. — TYPES OF PANEL WORK AND METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION.

36 INSIDE FINISHING

The top rail (d) is usually I" wider than the stiles, to allow
it to show the same width as the stile when the cap finish,
similar to p, r, of Fig. 9, is in its place. One edge of the
top rail and of the bottom rail (/) should be grooved, and
their ends fitted to the stile. The bottom rail should be of
a width to allow it to show at least f " more than the width
of the stiles when the base and the base molding are in
place. The middle rail (e) should be somewhat nar-
rower than the stiles, and grooved upon both edges,
and fitted to receive the muntins (g) which should be the
same width as the middle rails. The ends of the middle
rails should be fitted to the stiles; the ends of the muntins
should be fitted to the middle rails and also grooved
to receive the panels.

Six different ways of constructing panel work are in-
dicated. At H is shown the form of construction known
as "tongued and grooved" ; it should be used only in places
where it will be firmly fastened, or where it will be re-
quired to do no more than to support its own weight. The
thickness of the panel may equal the width of the groove,
or it may be thicker, in which case it is rebated to
allow it to enter the groove as shown at /. This is much
better, as the panel, being thicker, is not so apt to be
split by a blow.

The ends of the rails and muntins are grooved yVr; in
this groove is placed a tongue, I" long, made to fit closely,
but not so tightly as to risk splitting the wood. The grain
of the tongue should be parallel with the rails (o), so that
when it is in place, it will be at right angles with the
stile (p). This is usually done by planing a board to the
thickness of the width of the groove, and cutting pieces
I" long off it as they are needed. If the work is well

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 37

made of dry material, and not roughly used, it will give
very good satisfaction for a cheap grade of work.

J illustrates the panel grooved and tenoned construction,
between which and H there is much similarity. It makes
a better and stronger piece of work, and considering
all things, it costs about the same. This form of con-
struction is often reenforced by doweling the joints be-
tween the rails and stiles, and sometimes the joints of
the muntins and rails are treated in the same way. The
dowel holes must be bored before the grooves are made
or there will be no center for the dowel bit.

In the grooved and tenoned method (K) the groove (1-2)
is cut with a circular grooving saw about 1J" deep, the
shape of the saw causing the curved shape indicated by
the dotted lines. The tenon (3) is then fitted. The
groove for the panels should be only TG" deep.

The mortised and tenoned joint, shown at L, is generally
the method by which the best class of work is constructed.
Instead of making the mortised joint, a doweled joint
may be used. In this case there should be at least two
dowels in each joint, which should be so located as to
avoid the grooves which receive the panels. If a doweled
joint is used, the holes must be bored before the pieces
are grooved, or there will be no center for the dowel bit.
If a mortised and tenoned joint is used, and the tenon
coincides with the groove, there will not be so much
work in digging out the mortise after the groove has
been made. The doweled joint is often used, and with
satisfaction, in shops which have neither mortising nor
tenoning machines.

At M is shown rebated panel work ; this type is much
used in places in which the work is built in because, if the

INSIDE FINISHING

tenon (3) is omitted, it can be built one piece at a time,
and can be nailed through the edges so that no nailheads
will show. This method is sometimes applied by building
the frame of square edged pieces, and furring out a dis-
tance equal to the back of the rebate (4). The thickness
of a lath is about right for the furring. This form of con-
struction is especially valuable in places
where it is necessary that glass or wood
panels should be put in place after the
work is set up by using the back side of
the pieces shown in the illustration as the
face of the panel work. The panels may
be put in from the back.

At N is shown the coped panel work.
This form of panel work is extensively
used in the manufacture of furniture of all
descriptions, and is abundantly strong
for ordinary purposes. If good material
is used, and the work is well done, a
very handsome piece of work will result,
as the effect of a molded panel will be
obtained without the work of cutting in
moldings, and there will be no nail holes
visible.

(B.) Figure 18 shows the section of a

Scot
TopKail

Pane/
Mdd/etfat/

Pane/

Bottom ft ail
flase Mo/d/vq

3Qse Board

\ Shoe

BLED DADO
SETTING.

FIG. is.— VERTICAL paneled dado/with the different members
SECTION OF PAN- USed in setting it in place. The laps of
the outside corners, around a chimney
for instance, should be upon the side
where they will be the least conspicuous ; upon the best
work these outside corners are mitered.

Panel work should be set directly upon the studding;

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH

the spaces between the studding may be back plastered
for either deadening or warmth, and the wall above plas-
tered to a ground of the same thickness of the dado, as
shown in Fig. 18, at a. One point of superiority of this
method over nailing the dado upon the plastering, as is
frequently done, is that the finish may be put on and the
moldings stopped against the door casings much more
easily and in a more workmanlike manner than if some
of the moldings of the cap or base projected beyond the
door casings, in which event they should be stopped by
being returned upon them-
selves; that is, the contour
of the face of the molding
should be cut across the end,
which will look as though
the molding were mitered ;
small moldings should not
be mitered if they return

only their thickness, as the
short grain of the return is
apt to break off. Large
moldings may be mitered
when a return is necessary.

17. Rake dado may be
made as easily as any other,
if the work is done prop-
erly, the difficult parts being to get the clamps on so
that they will not slip, and to prevent the muntins
(2, Fig. 19) from slipping as the pressure is applied by
the clamps.

As the top of the top rail and the bottom of the bottom
rail of a piece of panel work usually are covered at least

FIG. 19. — SETTING UP RAKE DADO.

40 INSIDE FINISHING

one inch by the finish, they may be notched to receive the
clamps as shown at a, b.

Another and better method is shown at c, Fig. 19, in
which a piece If" wide is screwed to the outsides of the
top and bottom rails to prevent their slipping, and the
notches cut as indicated. These pieces may be used in-
definitely upon similar work. To prevent the muntins
from slipping when the pressure of the clamps is applied,
a small piece of soft wood (e) may be cut upon the end at
the angle at which the muntin intersects with the rails,
and glued by a rub joint at the place where the long corner
of the muntin will rest against it.

The panel work must be tried together to be sure that
each piece will go to its place with the least pressure ;
pounding should be dispensed with as much as possible,
as the small pieces (e) will be knocked off easily.

If there is trouble in getting the stiles on, they may be
easily brought to their places by the glue blocks (/) being
fastened on both sides of the rails and stiles, and hand
screws applied. Hand screws (h) will draw the stiles up to
a joint. The face of the stile should be fair with the face
of the rail. This should be done at each joint of the rails
and stiles ; it is customary to put on the glue blocks (/) at
the same time that the blocks (e) are applied. It is gen-
erally better to use cold glue for work of this sort.

Some workmen prefer to cut the ends of the rails, and
make the joints against the stiles after the panel work has
been glued up and the glue hardened, because it is some-
times difficult to keep the ends of the rails exactly in line.
The top rail may be brought to the stile by applying a
hand screw, as at g. The middle and bottom rails may be
brought up to a joint by extending clamps across the face

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH

of the panel work from the outside of the stile over a
muntin ; this method should be applied carefully, as the
muntins may be pulled away from the rail, or the edges
bruised. The former method is considered the better.

18. Soffits. — (A.) For a curved soffit, or the jamb of
an arched opening, there are several methods of obtaining
a piece of the desired sweep. One method known as
" kerfing " consists of
making, with a clean
cutting saw, a series
of cuts or kerfs across
the face of the soffit,
and nearly through to
the back. These cuts
should not be made in
a hit or miss manner,
but at regular inter-
vals, so that, when the
soffit is bent to fit the
arch, the sides of each
saw cut will come together on the face. The distance
between these cuts may be found by the method in-
dicated in Fig. 20, in which ab and gd both equal the inside
radius of the soffit.

The piece of wood from which the soffit is to be
made should be of clear, straight-grained stock, and
held upon a straight surface with a hand screw, as at c.
The saw cut g should be made square with the edges of
the piece, at the distance from the end of dotted lines d,
which equals ab ; the end should then be lifted up
until the saw cut g is brought together. The distance
h should be carefully measured with a pair of compasses

FIG. 20. — A SCARFED CIRCULAR SOFFIT.

42 INSIDE FINISHING

and spaced from g a distance each way equal to the radius
of the semicircle ef. All cuts should be made with the
same saw with which the cut g was made, and to the same
depth. In applying this method, it is necessary that the
distance between the centers of the saw cuts shall equal
exactly the distance h, so that when the soffit is in place
the pressure necessary to bring it to the correct curve
will force the sides of the cuts closely together, and con-
ceal them as much as possible.

One objection to this method is that unless the face of
the soffit is smoothed off with a crooked-faced smoother,
after it is in place, the curve will appear to be a series of
short faces between the cuts and, if the work is to be fin-
ished in the natural wood or stained, the cuts will show ;
if the wood is painted, a very satisfactory job may be made.

This work often is done by bringing the ends together
and fastening them at the right place, after filling the saw
cuts with glue. After the glue is set, the face may be
smoothed off upon the bench.

Another modification of the same method is to make saw
cuts in the back at equal intervals, and, after bending the
soffit around a form to the correct curve, to fill the saw
cuts with feathers of wood glued in, as shown at kl,
Fig. 20.

After dressing the back off to the desired thickness, the
piece may be handled as any straight piece, as it will hold
its shape, though it will have but little strength.

(B.) A circular soffit may be made also of any kind of
soft, flexible wood by preparing thin pieces which are to be
bent to the desired form, the face piece being of the same
kind of wood as the finish it is to match. These pieces
should be bent to the required curve by means of pieces

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH

FIG. 21. — A BUILT CIRCULAR SOFFIT.

fastened to the floor to the correct sweep, about twelve
inches apart, as at a, Fig. 21, or over a form, as in Fig. 20.
The pieces to be glued together are forced to the pieces
upon the floor by means of hand screws, and held there
until the glue has set.

There is a tendency for pieces glued in this way to
straighten themselves. This may be counteracted by mak-
ing the sweep a little smaller
than desired, so that this *•
tendency will bring it to
about the proper sweep. As
different kinds and thick-
nesses of wood act differ-
ently, no rule can be given
which will apply generally,
but a little experience will give the workman judgment.
Usually, one twelfth or one fifteenth of the radius of the
sweep will be a safe spring allowance. This is the method
commonly used in cabinet shops upon the best class of
work, as the piece may be handled with little danger of
breaking it ; if many are to be made, a form of the correct
shape should be used, as that is the most economical way.

19. A splayed soffit for a circling top window may be
made by the method described in Fig. 22. Points a, c, b
show the face of the soffit, and d, e, f, the drop of the splay,
or the size of the soffit at the window frame. At g may be
seen the section of the reveal or jamb, its angle with the
face of the casing, or line of the wall, being shown at g, h.
It will be observed that g, g, z forms one half of a cone, and
with h, h forms one half of the frustum of a cone. Thus
wre have the simple development of the frustum of a cone,
one half of which will be the splayed soffit. With z as

INSIDE FINISHING

FIG. 22. — A SPLAYED SOFFIT.

center, and zg, as radius, describe the arc xy, and with the

radius zh describe the arc vw, which will give the sweep of

both edges of the soffit. Tri-
secting the arc be, as at k, and
spacing one of these three divi-
sions six times upon the develop-
ment of the frustum of the cone,
working from the center e, we
have the approximate length of
the soffit, which should be cut
longer to allow for fitting the
vertical reveal casings. This
splayed soffit may be bent by
either of the methods described

in Topic 18, the saw scarfs radiating from the apex of the

cone (z), or the center of the developed soffit.

20. Circular panel work. — In making circular panel

work, the rails should be made and bent as shown in Fig.

21, the face piece (a, Fig. 23) being of

the finish wood desired. The piece 6,

which forms the bottom of the groove

into which the panel fits, should equal

the desired width of the groove ; the

back piece (c) should be of the right

thickness to make the rail match the

straight panel work which it joins,

or the stiles which are fitted upon the end.

The rails may be built to any desired section, or for any

method of construction used in panel work.

In circular panel work, the panels are usually plain

and built up of several layers of veneer. If a raised

panel is desired, the panels are sometirnes planed to

FIG. 23. — THE RAILS FOR
CURVED PANEL WORK.

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 45

the right curve and if a very quick sweep is wanted that
may have to be done, but it is difficult to do it prop-
erly. This is a very laborious and expensive method,
and the results rarely justify it ; instead, it is quite the
usual practice to warp the panels to the right curve after
they have been molded or raised. This is done by wetting
the side, which is to be convex, with moist sawdust,
and exposing the other side to dry heat.

The panels should be watched carefully, and tried fre-
quently with a pattern of exactly the desired curve, and
when the panel has warped to fit the pattern, the wet saw-
dust should be brushed off, and the panel set where the air
will reach both sides of it evenly, until it has dried thor-
oughly. As the panels are apt to straighten somewhat in
drying, it is best to allow them to warp a little more than
the pattern demands.

21. Closets. — (A.) Ample closets should be provided
for various purposes, as nothing adds more to the livable-
ness of a house, or appeals more to the heart of the house-
wife. In every kitchen there should be closets for groceries,
dishes, etc. In many houses a dust and vermin proof
closet is specified for holding the family linen. This closet
should be fitted with shelves and drawers, the details of
which generally are provided by the architect, or by the
owner.

(B.) A moth proof closet should be built of a good grade
of sound, well-seasoned lumber, and made proof against
dust, moths, and vermin. The doors should be made tight
by the use of weather strips; naphthaline or moth wax
should be used plentifully to insure against damage by
insect pests. A red cedar chest or closet, while new, is
satisfactory, but the wood loses its aroma in a few years,

46 INSIDE FINISHING

after which, unless the surface is planed, it is no more
moth proof than any other wood, though it may still
resist the ravages of boring insects and of mice.

(C.) China closets are built usually in the dining room.
They should have glass doors, and be at least 12" deep in
the clear inside. Clothes closets may be of almost any
size, but they should not be less than 48" high. They
should be provided with hooks ; if there is a shelf, the ca-
pacity of the closet may be increased by screwing into its
under side hooks which are especially useful as places to
hang garments which are on forms.

(D.) The pantry should have shelves not less than 10"
wide above the principal shelf, which may be from 18"
to 30" wide, and 30" from the floor, to be used for a
working table. Covers should be arranged in the wide
shelf for the flour and sugar barrels, which should be
in a closet underneath. Bins for meal, etc., are often
wanted by the owner, who usually decides how the
shelving is to be arranged. In the best houses, the
pantry shelves are inclosed by doors, but this is not
often done upon ordinary work.

(E.) A large trunk closet, or one for general storage, is a
great convenience. In most houses planned by architects,
these closets and their details are carefully worked out,
and the carpenter who fits up these and other little con-
veniences in a new house is sure to be appreciated.

22. A drawer case for bedding, linen, or clothing is fre-
quently needed, and should be placed where it is easily
accessible from the bedrooms. It is a good plan to place it
in a closet, so that when the door is closed the case will be
out of sight. In some places the case of drawers may be
placed across the end of a closet or alcove, so that there will

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH

be no need of finishing the ends. Such a case is shown
in Fig. 24.

In making the drawer case as illustrated, the joints of
the partition frames (a) should be made by being tongued

ff Sec//on*S<

FIG. 24. — SKETCH FOB A DRAWER CASE.

and grooved, or doweled at the corners and glued. The
standards (6) which support the partitions should be
grooved at c, at the proper distances to fit the drawers
which slide between them.

After the glue has set, the partitions should be planed
square and fair, and all but the bottom one notched, as at

48 INSIDE FINISHING

d, to receive the casings (e). The front rail of the bottom
partition should be made narrow to allow the base to be
glued upon it, as at/, the joint being strengthened by glue
blocks (g) if desired. The standards and partitions may
now be nailed together, the casings (e) and the base (/)
being glued and nailed with finish nails, unless a very good
piece of work is being done, when the pieces should be
glued only. If nails are used, it will not be necessary to
leave hand screws upon the work until the glue sets. The
joint at j, between the casing and base, should be mortised,
tongued and grooved, or doweled. One casing may be
left loose if desired, as it will be easier to fit the case into
the space which is to receive it, though if one end of the
case is finished, the casings should be fastened permanently.

Be sure that a case of this sort is set up square, as it will
save much trouble in fitting the drawers, the construction
of which is indicated by sections h, h and k, k. The top
of the case should be glued up, if one board of suitable
width cannot be found, and may be either fastened on or
left loose, as may seem wise considering the setting up of
the case.

After the drawer is fitted and the front planed, leave it
with the front flush with the face of the case, and mark
with a pencil beside the drawer sides on the partitions ;
remove the drawer and nail the runs (I, I) in their places.
It is obvious that any slight inaccuracy in the squaring of
the drawer will make no difference in its running. After
the runs are in place, the drawer should be stopped J" or
less back of the face of the case by nailing a piece back of
the drawer to prevent its being pushed in too far.

The dimensions of the case shown are purposely omitted,
as each piece of work will have its own length if the case is

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 49

to be fitted in; but cases in general range between 2' 6"
and 3' 0" in height, and 16" and 24" in depth.

In fitting a drawer, many workmen make the mistake
of running it too loosely; it should run as closely as
possible against the guides. The less that can be planed
from the bottom edges of the drawer sides the better, as
any taken off there weakens the support of the drawer
bottom; if the sides are too wide, they should be made
narrower by planing off the top edge.

Be sure that the bottom of the drawer front does not
drag on the partition, also that the ends of the front clear
the space in which it runs, for if the outside of the face of
the drawer front rubs against the case, it may splinter.
Care should be used to leave an open joint ; the least pos-
sible difference between the ends of the opening and the
drawer front is sufficient.

The use of a wax candle, paraffin wax, bayberry tallow,
or even a piece of soap, upon the drawer and guides where
there is apt to be friction, is of great help. If a drawer
runs hard in damp weather, do not plane off more than
is absolutely necessary, as artificial heat will cure almost
any drawer which ever fitted, if it is made of seasoned stock.

23. A kitchen sink should be set with a pitch toward
the drain to allow the water to run off freely. The drain
should be connected with a sewer, or carried to a sufficient
distance to insure that there will never be any annoyance
from it ; this work should be done by a plumber in a
sanitary manner. Upon one side of the sink, usually at
the left, there should be a dish drainer for conducting the
water into the sink as it drains from the dishes ; this
should be set at an incline of about I" to I/, as shown in
Fig. 25, at a.

INSIDE FINISHING

There should be no closet under the sink ; the place
should be left open to allow a free circulation of air.

A splash board (6)
should protect the wall
from water, back of
and above the sink.

24. The bathroom
should be finished
with well - seasoned
wood, of a kind which
is but little affected

FIG. 25. — A KITCHEN SINK. by dampness, and

have either a ceiling or panel work dado, well painted
and finished to protect it against water. As the modern
open plumbing and the tile or marble bathrooms have
supplanted the older fittings which had to be boxed in,
there is little opportunity for woodwork in the bathroom
of the modern house.

25. Wood mantels, hardware, and other special finish
are often furnished by the owner, though a limit to the
price may be specified in the contract. Any expense
incurred in pleasing the owner's fancy is figured as
an extra, though the best plan is to keep the cost of extras
as low as possible, since it often causes misunderstanding,
unless each matter is settled in writing as it occurs.

SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

11. Is floor laying always done by house carpenters? What kinds
of floors are in most common use? How should a matched floor be
nailed ? Which is the more expensive floor ? Why ? Should a floor
be nailed at every joist? How should paper be laid under a floor?
How should the stock for a natural finish floor be selected ? Compare
the merits of wide and narrow flooring. Why is the starting of a

FLOOR LAYING, INSIDE FINISH 51

matched floor an important matter ? How is it brought about upon a
floor which fits against the baseboard ? Under the baseboard ? What
is the objection to using a quarter round or shoe strip ? Will any-
thing be gained by selecting the grain in the boards of a floor which is
to be smoothed ? How is a square-edged floor laid ?

12. What is meant by inside finish ? How should finish be sorted
for colors ? Why ? Is it a good plan to use different woods in the same
room ? Does this rule apply to doors ? What should be the relation
of the tops of openings to each other ? Is this usually followed ? Why ?
What woods may be used for inside finish ? What woods are unsuit-
able ? What quality of material should be used ?

13. Describe the different styles of casings. Compare the size of a
corner block with that of the side casing. Compare the size of a lintel
or header with that of its architrave. For what is a plinth useful?
How should the bottom of a plinth be cut to allow a carpet to go under
it ? Should door casings be set flush with the edge of the doorframe ?
Why is this done ? Is the finish put around a window in the same way ?
Is it good practice to splice a casing? Why is it cheaper to put the
finish upon a perfectly plumb and square frame, than upon any other ?
What is the correct way to place the grain of a corner block ? Why ?

14. What part of a molding governs its use ? Describe the shape
of a band molding ; of a base molding. How should a base molding
be nailed ? Why ? Describe the shape and use of a cap molding. Of
the bed mold. How should a bed mold be mitered ? Describe a panel
molding. How should it be nailed to its place ? Why ? For what is
an astragal molding often used? Describe a crown molding. De-
scribe the quarter round and some of its uses. Upon what grade of
work is it much used ? How is it used in putting up partitions ? De-
scribe the scotia and some of its uses. Describe a nosing and some of
its uses. Describe a half round and some of its uses. For what pur-
poses are beads used ? Stop beads ? Describe picture or room mold-
ings. Describe the process of coping a room or base molding. What
is the objection to mitering the inside corner of a base or room mold-
ing ? Of what are large cornices composed ? From what are the forms
of moldings taken ? How many types of moldings were used by the an-
cients? Describe the ovolo; the talon and quirk; the cyma recta;
the cyma re versa; the cavetto; the torus; the astragal. Give the
uses and location of the above moldings. What form did the ancients

52 INSIDE FINISHING

avoid in designing moldings? What should be the angle of the face
line of a cornice with the frieze ? What is the usual width of baseboards ?
What will happen if the base is put on before the plastering is thor-
oughly dry ? How is the base put on if a single floor is to be used ? A
double floor ? Compare the two. How should the inside and outside
corners of a baseboard be fitted for best results ? From what quality of
lumber should moldings be made ? What mark of a good workman is
shown by his work with moldings ?

15. Describe the method of finding the joint between a straight and
a circling molding.

16. Should exact dimensions be taken from the architect's plans or
from the house itself ? How may dado be made ? Describe different
methods of building panel work. Describe the members of a piece of
panel work. How should laps of outside corners be made? How
is a building prepared for panel work which is to be set flush with the
face of the plastering ? Compare the merits of setting the panel work
flush with the face of the plaster, or on the plaster. How should mold-
ings which project beyond the finish be treated ?

17. Describe two methods of putting the clamps upon a piece of rake
dado. How may the muntins be prevented from slipping ? How may
the stiles be put on ?

18. Describe the method of finding the cuts for kerfing. How are
circular soffits made ? Describe the best method.

19. How may a splayed soffit be laid out ?

20. How may the rails of circular panel work be made? How
should the panels be treated to fit them to the sweep ?

21. What closets should be provided in the kitchen? How may a
moth proof closet be made ? Is a red cedar closet a permanent pre-
ventive of moths ? Describe the location and depth of a china closet.
Describe a clothes closet, and its fittings. Describe a pantry.

22. What is a common mistake in running in a drawer ? If the sides
of a drawer are too wide, should they be planed off at the top or at the
bottom? Why? How should the drawer front be fitted to prevent
splintering at the ends ? What will make a drawer run easier ?

23. Describe the fittings of a sink.

24. Describe the fittings of a modern bathroom.

25. How are wood mantels sometimes purchased ? What must the
builder guard against when extras are asked for ? How ?

CHAPTER III
DOORS

26. Doors for all ordinary purposes can be purchased
in stock sizes much more reasonably than if they were
made to order. Stock doors usually are doweled, and if
well made of thoroughly seasoned material are perfectly
satisfactory; a doweled door can be made more econom-
ically than a mortised door, therefore it is

sold at a less price, but if well made it will
give just as good satisfaction.

For a If" door, \" dowels, placed " stag-
gering," as shown in Fig. 26, will make a
stronger job than if a mortised joint were
used, other things being equal. These doors
usually are coped after the dowel holes are
bored, as otherwise there will be no center
for the bit. The grooves for the panels FlG- 26--posi-

TION OF DOWELS.

should be T9g" deep, to allow the panels which
enter V' to swell f " without opening the joints between
the rails and stiles. Sometimes a shallower groove and
cope are used, the panels being proportionately narrower.
The joints in- the doors are made by machinery, and are
forced to their places and held there by clamps while
the glue sets.

27. Stock sizes of doors cover a wide range, but those
most commonly used are 2' 6" X 6' 6", 2' 8" X 6' 8",
2' 10" X 6' 10", 3' 0" X 7' 0" ; either If" or If" thick.

INSIDE FINISHING

TABLE OF REGULAR SIZES

WIDTH LENGTH THICK-

NESS

2' 0" X 6' 0" X 11"

2' 8" X 6' 6" X If"

2' 6" X 8' 0" X If"

2' 6" X 6' 0" X 14"

2/ 10" X 6' 6" X If"

2' 8" X 8' 0" X If"

2' 8" X 6' 0" X 1|"

3' 0" X 6' 6" X If"

3' 0" X 8' 0" X If"

3' 0" X 6' 0" X 14"

2' 0" X 6' 8" X If"

3' 0" X8' 6" X If"

2' 4" X 6' 4" X 14"

2' 4" X 6' 8" X If"

3' 0" X 9' 0" X If"

2' 0" X 6' G" X 14"

2' 6" X 6' 8" X If"

2' 6" X 6' 6" X If"

2' 6" X 6' G" X If"

2' 8" X 6' 8" X If"

2' 6" X 6' 8" X If"

3' 0" X 6' 8" X If"

2' 10" X 6' 10" X If"

2' 8" X 6' 8" X 14"

2' 6" X 6' 10" X If"

2' 6" X 7' 0" X If"

2' 10" X 6' 10" X 14"

2' 8" X 6' 10" X If"

2' 8" X 7' 0" X If"

3' 0" X 7' 0" X 1|"

2' 10" X 6' 10" X If"

2' 10" X 7' 0" X If"

2' 0" X 6' 0" X If"

2' 4" X 1' 0" X If"

3' 0" X 7' 0" X If"

2' 6" X 6' 0" X If"

1' 6" X 7' 0" X If"

2' 6" X 7' 6" X If"

2' 8" X 6' 0" X If"

2' 8" X 1' 0" X If"

2' 8" X 7' 6" X If"

3' 0" X 6' 0" X If"

2' 10" X 7' 0" X If"

2' 10" X 7' 6" X If"

2' 4" X 6' 4" X If"

3' 0" X 7' 0" X If"

3' 0" X 7' 6" X If"

2' 6" X 6' 4" X If"

2' 6" X 7' 6" X If"

2' 6" X 8' 0" X If"

2' 0" X 6' 6" X If"

2' 8" X 7' '. 6" X If"

2' 8" X 8' 0" X If"

2' 4" X 6' 6" X If"

2' 10" X 7' 6" X If"

3' 0" X 8' 0" X If"

2' 6" X 6' 6" X If"

3' 0" X V 6" X If"

3' 0" X 8' 6" X If"

3' 0" X 9' 0" X If"

Doors other than those commonly used are generally
made in these same sizes, but they are kept in stock by
none but the largest dealers.

28. Selection. — In selecting a door, be sure that the
material and workmanship are all that the quality of the
door demands, and that it is straight and out of wind ;
if these things are carefully considered in purchasing doors,
time will be saved in hanging them.

Upon ordinary work the doors may be of any wood, re-
gardless of the finish of the rest of the house, though often
they are veneered to match the rooms which the doorway
connects.

Solid doors are made of white pine, cypress, Carolina

DOORS 55

pine, and poplar or whitewood, generally preferred in the
order named.

There are usually three grades of doors recognized :
#1, #2, #3 or common. The #1 door is supposed to
be first-class in every respect ; the #2 door may have a
few blemishes which do not injure its strength or appear-
ance greatly, and is the grade of door commonly used.
A common door is of poor stock and workmanship, and is
used only upon the cheapest grade of work, usually receiv-
ing a coat of cheap paint at the factory, to cover up some
of the defects.

29. Veneered doors, if well made, are in general more
serviceable than other kinds. Solid hardwood doors will
not hold their shape
well, therefore they
are veneered by
the following pro-
cess. A core (see a
of Fig. 27) of thor-
oughly seasoned

white pine is made FIG. 27. — THE GLUED CORE FOR A VENEERED

by ripping a plank

If" or If" thick into pieces at least \" wider than the
finished thickness of the core; these pieces are laid side by
side or turned upon their edges, as shown at a, a, a, a,
Fig. 27, until, with the face edge 6, they aggregate a little
more than the desired width of the member of the door
for which the core is intended. The pieces are then turned
end for end, or other edge up, to cross the grain, as at a, Fig.
27, thus counteracting the tendency of the different pieces
to change their shape. After the joints have been fitted,
the pieces are glued together. A piece of the finish wood

56 INSIDE FINISHING

should be glued upon one edge of the stile at the same time,
as at b, Fig. 27. After the glue has set, all the cores of the
door should be j ointed straight and out of wind and dressed
to the desired thickness.

In preparation for veneering the sides of the cores, the
backs of the veneers and each side of the cores should be
planed with a scratch or toothing plane, to make the
glue hold better. Veneering should be done in a hot shop,
with wood thoroughly heated, and with hot glue, which
should be of about the consistency of cream, so that it
will spread evenly and rapidly. The glue should be ap-
plied with a broad glue brush, not a paint brush in which
the bristles are usually set in glue, or the glue in the brush
will soften and allow the bristles to come out. The glue
should be spread thickly enough to cover the wood well,
and the veneer of both sides put on at the same time.
Several pieces of the same size may be piled and glued at
once, and placed in a veneer press, or it is sometimes done
with large hand screws, if a veneer press is not available.
The former method is the better, but as the work has to
stay in the press until the glue sets, few shops are fitted
with a sufficient number of veneer presses to allow of their
use exclusively. Care should be used that no glue is
spattered upon the face side of the veneer, or the pieces
will stick together. A caul, or a piece of thick, straight
wood of the proper size, is placed between the hand screws
or veneer press and the veneers of the outside pieces.
The caul should be a little larger than the work which is
being veneered ; it should be waxed carefully to prevent
the glue from sticking to it, and placed where every part
of the surface of the veneer will be under pressure. The
pile should be built carefully, to be sure that it is straight

DOORS

and square, and that every part of each piece will receive
the required pressure. The pile should be built vertically;
unless this is done accurately, the pile may " buckle" or
break when pressure is applied.

When the veneers have been glued upon the cores, the
stiles and rails should be of the desired thickness of the
door. After the veneering is done, proceed as with solid
pieces.

30. The doorframes, if the finish is to be in the natural
wood, should be of the same kind of wood as the trimming
of the rooms which the door connects. Usually they are
made 1J" or If" thick, and in width equal to the thick-
ness of the partition, and rabbeted to fit the thickness
of the door.

Upon common work, the door jamb is often made of 1£"
stock. However, when rabbeted, this is not thick enough
to hold the screws of the
hinges properly. If this
thickness of stock is used, a
stop is sometimes nailed on
to form the rabbet. This is
not a workmanlike thing to
do, as the stop is apt to be
loosened by the slamming of
the door. If 1J" jambs have
to be used, grooves should
be cut into them as shown at a, Fig. 28, to hold the
stops.

There are several styles of door jambs or frames, but
those shown are the ones most commonly used. Figure
28, &, is a popular form, as the door may be hung upon
either side of the jamb. Doorframes between rooms which

a t> c

FIG. 28. — DOOR JAMBS.

INSIDE FINISHING

FIG. 29. — JOINTS OF DOOR JAMBS.

are finished in different woods are veneered to match the

rooms in the best class of work.

Door jambs like a and 6, Fig. 28, generally are fitted

together with a butt joint, as shown at a, Fig. 29, and those

like c are mitered, as
shown in Fig. 29, 6.
They should be fas-
tened together by
spikes, and squared,
being held by battens
tacked diagonally
across the openings
from stile to header,

and across the bottom of the frame to hold the stiles

parallel. This is ..very important since, if the doorframe

is not square, there will be trouble all through the casing

and in hanging the door.

31. The doorframes of a brick house are wider than
those of a frame building, as the walls are thicker. The
frame is sometimes set as shown in Fig. 30. In this way
any size of frame stock may be

used, though a paneled frame as
wide as the thickness of the wall is
often preferred.

32. Setting doorframes. — To set

a doorframe economically, the open- FIG. so. — SETTING A DOOR-
ing left in the studs should be plumb FRAME IN BRICKWORK-
on the sides, both ways, and I" wider and J" higher than
the outside of the doorframe. In this opening, the door-
frame should be set perfectly plumb and out of wind, in
which position it should be wedged and fastened securely.
The time spent in setting a doorframe accurately is

DOORS 59

more than compensated for in fitting the casings around it,
and in fitting and hanging the door. If the doorframe is
not set plumb, the door will swing of itself unless it is fas-
tened open or closed.

Wedges or " shims " should be placed between the frame
and the stud to allow the frame to be nailed straight ; they
are used also where the hinges are to be set, so that if it is
ever necessary to put a long screw in the hinge, there will
be wood to hold it. In setting a 1J" frame this always
should be done.

In setting the doorframes of a brick house, a piece
should be nailed the entire length of the wall side of the
frames, so that the wall may be built around it, as at a, in
Fig. 30. It should be so placed that the bricks will have
to be cut as little as possible. A piece of 2" X 4" or 2"
X 6" should be laid in the brickwork at the bottom of
the door opening, level with the floor, to give a nailing for
the flooring and the threshold.

It is the carpenter's business to assist the mason in set-
ting the frame, and he should see that it is securely braced
plumb and out of wind before the wall is built around it.

33. Jointing. — A door should be jointed before the
threshold is cut down, and the edges made to fit the rab-
bets of the frame closely. In doing this, the advantage
of setting the doorframe accurately will be appreciated.

The door should be fitted carefully to the header or top
of the doorframe, at a, Fig. 31, pushed into its place, and
wedged there, as at b.

The threshold, or a piece of the same thickness, should
then be placed against the bottom of the door, as at c, and
a pencil line (d) made on the door, to indicate the exact
length of the door after the threshold is in place. The

INSIDE FINISHING

door should be sawed off about J" shorter than this line.
If a carpet is to be laid over the threshold, either the door

should be still shorter, or the
threshold planed thinner.

It is a good plan to dispense
with a threshold by building up
f " or y under the floor ; this gen-
erally will allow the door to swing
over a carpet or rug.

34. Hanging a door. — In hang-
ing, or fitting the hinges to a door,
trouble will be saved by using care
and accuracy at each step of the
work. If the hinge stile of the door
is not perfectly straight sideways,
the rounding side should be placed
next the rabbet, as a good joint
between the door and the back
of the rabbet can be more easily
made than if the hollow side of the stile were to be fitted.
This applies more especially to the hinge joint, as a slight
hollow in the lock stile will be remedied by the latch.

After the door has been fitted to the side and head rab-
bets, as at a, e, /, Fig. 31, it should be dropped y6" by
drawing out the wedge (b). Make a knife mark 8" from
the top of the door, at g, to which the top end of the upper
hinge should be placed; for the bottom of the lower
hinge, make another mark at h, on line with the top of the
bottom rail of the door. These marks should be made
upon both door and doorframe simultaneously.

Remove the door ; stand it edgeways on the floor with
the hinge edge up ; lay the hinge carefully in its place, the

FIG. 31. — A FITTED DOOR.

DOORS

top end at g, Fig. 32. With a knife, mark carefully the other
edge of the hinge at s. Make corresponding marks in the
rabbet of the doorframe, at .;, Fig. 32. Gauge from the rab-
bet or back side of the door, or the side which fits against
the rabbet, the distance, k, which marks the location of the
back edge of the hinge. This
distance is governed by the
thickness of the door, and
the projection of the round
of the hinge beyond the face
of the door, necessary to allow
the door to swing wide open
and clear the finish.

With a piece of wood of the
same thickness as k, or the
above gauged distance, laid
in the rabbet of the door-
frame, make the mark, m.
This is the exact location in
the rabbet of the back edge
of the other half of the hinge.

Square the top and bottom
marks of the hinge (g, s and
j, j) to the lines k and m.
Make the gauge mark upon
the face of the door at n, and
upon the frame at p, to denote the depth of the slot, in
which each half of the hinge is to rest.

This should be of such a depth that the joint between
the door and the frame at r will be a little less than TV,
to insure that the paint upon the door and upon the frame
will not make the door " hinge-bound." With a sharp

Sect/on at tt;Q0orc/asecL
FIG. 32. — CUTTING IN THE HINGES.

INSIDE FINISHING

chisel, cut carefully to the lines of both the top and bottom
hinges ; bore holes for the screws, and fasten the hinges
on. Ordinarily a \\" screw is used for this purpose.

If the door is sprung, and strikes the rabbet of the frame
on the hinge stile, or does not fit the rabbet on the lock
edge (/, Fig. 31), do not plane the stile of the door to fit,
but instead mark the rabbet carefully, and with a rabbet
plane take from the jamb the wood which prevents the
door from closing.

The lock edge of the door should be jointed a little under
so that it will clear the frame easily. It is quite a general
rule among carpenters to fit the face of a door so that
a twenty-five-cent piece will just slip into the joint all
around it. After the door is fitted satisfactorily, it is ready
for the lock.

The loose-pin butt (a, Fig. 33) and the loose-joint butt
(b) are the types of hinges generally used. The latter has
Q

(o)

a ti

FIG. 33. — a, LOOSE-PIN BUTT; b, LOOSE- JOINT BUTT.,

an advantage over the former in the ease with which a
door may be removed and replaced, though some trouble
may be caused in keeping the right arid left hinges separate.
The terms " right " and " left " as applied to hinges and
locks refer to the direction in which the door swings when
it is pushed open.

DOORS

a b

FIG. 34. — CUPBOARD HINGES.

Also there are several forms of spring and special hinges,
which are for use upon doors swinging both ways, or self-
closing. Hinges should be set so that the door will swing
wide open without touching the finish, as shown at z, Fig.
32. The pins of all the
hinges should be upon
the same vertical line.
Hinges for cupboard
doors and other com-
mon work are often cut entirely into the door, as at a,
Fig. 34 ; but upon the best work they are halved into both
the door and the casing, as at 6.

35. Fitting locks. — (A.) The rim lock, shown in Fig.
35, is less expensive than a mortise lock, and as it may
be put on very easily, is used upon
the cheapest work. If the door rat-
tles, the striker or latch plate (a)
may be set back into the frame, or
the lock itself may be set out by
means of pasteboard or thin wood

D between it and the door.

Padlocks are useless unless the hasp
and staple by which they hold the
door are fastened firmly in the wood ;
if padlocks are to be exposed to
dampness, those should be selected which have brass or
bronze tumblers, otherwise they will rust so badly as to
be worthless in a little while.

(B.) To fit a mortise lock (Fig. 36), bore a f " hole for the
knob spindle, as at a, and a Ty hole at &, for the key, being
sure that they are accurately located before boring.
The mortise should then be marked, and " beat out "

FIG. 35. — A RIM LOCK.

INSIDE FINISHING

or cut out with care, so that the sides of the mortise shall
be parallel with the sides of the stiles of the door. No more
wood should be cut out than is necessary, as the door stile

may be weakened. Put the
lock in the mortise and
mark around the face plate
with a sharp knife ; remove
the lock and cut to these
marks carefully, just deep
enough to allow the face of
the plate (c) to come flush
with the edge of the stile.

The striker (d, Fig. 36)
should be located in the
doorframe as in Fig. 37,
which shows a cross-section

no. 36. -A MORT.SE LOCK. at />./ °f FiS' 36> SO that

the inside of the door (e)

will be held closely against the rabbet of the doorframe
at &, to prevent rattling. It should be placed at such a
height that the bolt and latch
will enter their places as near the
vertical center of the hole as
possible. It is important that
the distance c should be the
same both in the door and in
the rabbet, otherwise the latch
will not enter the striker, or the
door will rattle. Be sure that
the wood is cut away so that the
latch and bolt will enter the

N FIG. 37. — PLACING THE STRIKER

openings in the striker easily. OR LATCH PLATE.

DOORS

Usually both rim and mortise locks are reversible, that is,
their latches may be changed to suit either a right or left
hand door.

Cupboard locks are usually screwed to the inside of the
door.

36. The threshold. — In cutting down a threshold, con-
siderable skill is necessary to make a good job. Figure 38
shows the different steps of the process. Drive nails in
the floor at a, a, opposite each side of the doorframe, at

FIG. 38. — CUTTING DOWN A THRESHOLD.

exactly the same distance from each rabbet (d), and far
enough from the plinth to allow the threshold to be moved
endways without touching it. Mark lightly upon the
floor the line b, 6, the edge of the threshold when it is in
place ; this line should be parallel with the threshold when
the edge c, c of the latter is resting against the nails a, a.
The distance (2) between b and c should be taken with a
pair of dividers, and with one leg touching the rabbet (d)
make lightly a short scratch at e upon the threshold,
marking the other end also. Without changing the di-
viders, lay off the same distance from the jamb (/) and
from the face of the plinth (gr), as these denote what will

66 INSIDE FINISHING

have to be cut out to allow the threshold to go back into
its place.

Do not use the try-square to lay out the ends, as they
should be made to fit the horizontal section of the door-
frame, which is rarely set perfectly square with the faces of
the partition ; therefore the cuts may be made with a knife
at the angle of the jamb, which is found by using a straight-
edge, or by the blade of a steel square, as shown at h.
The square is in position to obtain the first cut (i) which
is from the rabbet (d) to the edge of the threshold (c).
Upon the line, e, of the threshold, lay off the exact size
of the rabbet (d) ; measuring from i, mark j with the point
of a sharp knife. With the steel square held against the
long side of the rabbet, as indicated by dotted lines at y,
move the threshold until the point, j, coincides with the
edge of the square. Draw the line, k} which will rest
against the long sida of the rabbet at w when the threshold
is in place.

Following the above method, make all marks neces-
sary for the fitting of that end of the threshold. The
length of the threshold is found by measuring the exact
distance between the two jambs, from m to m opposite,
and by laying it off upon the threshold from the cut, z,
to the corresponding cut upon the other end. This
should be a little long, not a measurable distance, say a
little less than £•%' in order to be forced to a close fit.
Having obtained this point, proceed in the same way as
in marking the first end, moving the threshold so as to
make the points of length coincide with the straight-
edge when held against the members of the doorframe
which are to be fitted by corresponding members of the
threshold, as described above.

DOORS 67

All cuts should be made a little under, that is, shorter
on the back or under side than on the face, so that the
threshold may be forced into its place without marring
the jamb. The outside ends of the threshold should be
returned upon themselves, as shown at n.

The result of the work will depend upon the care used,
and while the process may seem intricate, if it is fol-
lowed through carefully once, it will be found to be
much more simple than it appears.

SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

26. Are the doors in common use made to order ? Why ? Compare
doweled and mortised doors. What sized dowels should be used ? De-
scribe a coped-joint door. How is a door forced together and the joints
held ? Why should coping be done before the dowel holes are bored ?
Describe the groove and how the panel fits into it. Why should a panel
be narrower than the distance between the bottoms of the grooves ?

27. Give the sizes of the doors most generally used.

28. Describe the three grades of doors. What should be considered
in buying a door ? Of what kinds of wood are solid doors made ?

29. .How should hardwood doors be made ? Describe the process of
their construction.

30. What governs the kind of wood of which doorframes are made
upon the best work? What governs the width of the door jamb?
What should be its thickness ? How is a rabbet sometimes formed upon
cheap work? How should this be done? Describe a veneered door
jamb, and tell why it is necessary. Describe two ways of fastening
doorframes together.

31. Compare the doorframes of a frame house and of a brick
house.

32. What is the relative size of a doorframe, and the opening in the
partition ? Describe the process of setting a doorframe. What should
be done where the hinges are to be fitted to provide a "hold" for
screws ?

33. Describe the process of jointing in a door. If the stiles of a door

68 INSIDE FINISHING

are not perfectly straight, which side should go next the rabbet ? What
difference will it make if a carpet is to go over the threshold ?

34. Describe the process of marking and cutting in a hinge. Com-
pare two kinds of hinges. How far should hinges project from the
finish ? Why should not the stile be planed straight ? Describe the
different forms of hinges in common use. What is meant by the
"hand" of a door? How are cupboard hinges usually cut in?

35. Upon what grade of work is the rim lock generally used ? De-
scribe the process of putting on mortise locks. How should the striker
be put on to prevent the rattling of the door ? What kind of padlock
should be used in damp places ?

36. What is the first step in cutting down a threshold ? Should the
marks for the cuts to fit the inside of the jambs be made perfectly square
with the edges of the threshold ? Is it necessary that a try-square be
used for this purpose ? Describe the process of finding the cuts which
are parallel to the edges of the threshold. The cuts for the ends.
Should the marks be made with a knife or with a pencil ? Should the
ends be cut square or under a little ?

CHAPTER IV

WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH

37. Window frames. — Window frames for common
work are made generally in localities where labor and
power are cheap, are sent
to the market
down" (K.D.),

"knock

or in

" shooks," and nailed
together at the building
where they are to be
used. The size of the
window frame is gov-
erned by the size of the
sash it is to accommo-
date. The width of a
window frame is between
the pulley stiles (a, Fig.
39), and the height is
measured from the point
where the outside of the
lower sash strikes the
sill or stool (g), or at the
inside of the parting strip
(h)t to the header (j),
as from 6 to c, Fig. 39.

There are a number of different styles of frames;
those for common use are made usually after one of two

FIG. 39. — WINDOW FRAME WITH A SINGLE
SILL.

70 INSIDE FINISHING

methods. The one shown in Fig. 39 generally is used
upon the medium grade of work in the East, and has
stood the test of many years of service in trying climatic
conditions with perfect satisfaction. It has no subsill,
and no blind stop, the blinds being hung upon the out-
side of the casing, as discussed later. Since there is but
one sill, there is nothing to curl up and allow water to
drive under.

As the clapboard, or siding (&), is generally thinner than
that in common use throughout the West, a I" outside
casing (m) is all that is necessary to give sufficient sink-
age to the siding. It is a cheaper frame to make than
that generally used throughout the West.

Where this frame is in common use, it is quite the
general custom to board the house upon the studding,
and let the back of the outside casing (m) rest upon the
boarding (ft), cutting the siding (k) against it as at d.

To make a nice job, the frames are often set before
the house is boarded in, with the outside casing (m)
nailed to the studding, and the boarding (ri) cut against
it, as at e, Fig. 39. Before the frame is set, or while it
is being made, a band molding (/) is mitered around the
casing, J" or f " from the outside edge, and the siding (k)
cut against it. In this case, the pulley stile (a) should
be }" narrower than if the frame were set as at d.

This makes a warm and a good looking piece of work,
and is used often.

In making this frame, the pulley stile is grooved for the
stool (g) upon a pitch of I" in 7", and the stool nailed in,
as at s. The bottom of the stile is cut off square with the
edges about f " below the stool at the outside edge ; this
gives a square base instead of a slanting one to rest the

WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH

frame on while handling or setting it. A piece known
as the pocket (p) is cut upon the inside edge of each
pulley stile as shown by section rr, at s, Fig. 39,
for the purpose of allowing the sash weight to be
removed easily. The pocket is afterward replaced, and
fastened in with a screw at the top,
and nails at the bottom, as indi-
cated.

The parting strip (h) usually stops
at the header, though a mortise is
sometimes made there, to receive the
top end of the parting strip. A wide
stop bead (t) should extend from the
inside of the upper sash to miter with
the side stop strips; this is, however,
part of the finish and not of the win-
dow frame.

The frame generally used through-
out the West (Fig. 40) is a more ex-
pensive and finer looking frame than
the one described above, but it gives
no better satisfaction, as the subsill (a)
is apt to curl up and allow water to
drive under. The groove in the bottom
of the sill of both frames is to receive FIG. 40.— WINDOW FRAME
the top edge of the siding. The pul- ^ sTOSpUB8ILL AND
ley stile is sometimes cut off flush
at the bottom of the subsill, as at c, and the sill (b)
nailed upon the bottom of the whole frame, thus giving
a slanting base upon which the frame must rest while it
- is being handled. Some manufacturers run the pulley
stile down to the bottom of the sill, as indicated by dotted

INSIDE FINISHING

lines, grooving it to receive the sill as at s} Fig. 39. This

makes a much better job.

The blind stop (/) and subsill (a, Fig. 40) add to the

appearance of the frame, and allow the blinds to be

hung between the casings
(h) which are generally If"
or 1}" thick. Thick cas-
ings are necessary to allow
the siding to be cut in and
to prevent it from pro-
jecting beyond the face
of the casing, as the siding
generally is thicker than
that used in the East,
where a -| " casing is suffi-
cient. In this type of
window frame, the part-
ing strip (e) is usually con-
tinued across the header,
as at d. The pocket (p) is
cut the same as in Fig. 39.
The outside casings of
frames for wooden build-

ings are generally 4" or
4J" wide ; this allows the
frame to be fastened in its
place by nailing through

FIG. 41. — WINDOW FRAME FOR A BRICK
HOUSE ; A Box FRAME.

the casing into the stud, upon which it bears one inch,
allowing two inches between the back of the pulley stile
and the stud, in which space the weight is to run.

A different form of construction is used in making the
pulley stiles or boxes of window frames for a brick build-

WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 73

ing, known as a box frame, Fig. 41. In this frame, the
weights run in a box which is inclosed back of the pulley
stile. The outside casing usually projects beyond the
back of the pulley stile |" as at a, Fig. 41, around which
the bricks are laid, holding the frame firmly in its place.

The staff bead (b) generally is set about J" from the
back of the box, or the extreme outside of the frame, at c,
and the brick laid against it as indicated, though some-
times as at g. Under the stool, as at d, is a groove which
should be filled with cement when the frame is set upon
the stone sill, thus preventing water from driving under.
Aside from these distinctions there is no essential dif-
ference between the frames for a wooden and a brick
building.

The architect often furnishes the details of the window
frame and of the sash, and generally the only important
point in which they differ from the ordi-
nary stock window frame, aside from the
specially designed moldings, is in the sill, as
at a, Fig. 42, and in a drip upon the bottom
rail of the lower sash (6). The advantage
is that water cannot drive under the sash,
as it may in an ordinary window. If the
water drives under the sash, it has access to Vrr

rIG. -1J. k_TOOL

the end wood of the stiles, and will in time AND SASH WITH
cause them to decay.

MulUon frames, consisting of two or more windows in
one frame, are frequently used. The mullion pulley stiles
should be 3J" or 4" apart, or far enough to allow the
two sets of the window weights to work freely, if hung
sash are used. A stud is frequently set in the mullion
to support the header of the opening. If this is done it

74 INSIDE FINISHING

is plain that the backs of the mullion pulley stiles must
be far enough apart to allow room for the stud and the
two sets of weights. The header of the frame should ex-
tend the entire length between the end pulley stiles of
the frame into which it should be grooved, the tops of
the pulley stiles of the mullions being grooved into the
underside of it.

The pulleys for all window frames should be strong
and stiff, for if made of too light metal, they will wear
out quickly, or heavy weights may spring them, thus
allowing the cord to catch, causing much trouble and
annoyance. The top of the pulley is usually placed 5"
from the under side of the header.

Frames for casement windows usually are made to
allow the sash to swing out, as otherwise it is quite
difficult to make them rain-proof. One objection to
swinging the sash outward is that fly screens cannot be
placed upon the outside of the window, though as they
may be placed upon the inside, this is not a very im-
portant matter.

Window frames are often needed to accommodate
center hung sash, which should swing with the lower
half outward, otherwise the rain will be guided into the
house. Sometimes sash are pivoted in the center of
the top and bottom. This practice is not recommended
for outside sash, as a rain-proof joint cannot well be
made, though for inside work this method is quite satis-
factory. A pin hinge is used for this, of which there are
several forms upon the market.

38. Window sash. — The construction of window sash
is practically the same in all parts of the country, though
in some places the members are lighter than in others,

WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH

thus making it necessary that the frame and the sash
should be of different sizes for the same size of glass, ac-
cording to the style of sash used.

The names of the different members of a sash are given
in Fig. 43. If the sash springs out of shape, it is diffi-
cult and often impossible to
make it run smoothly, besides
causing such a strain upon the
glass that a slight jar may break
it ; therefore only the best sea-
soned stock should be used.

A sash should be made as
light as possible, in order that
the weight may be at a mini-
mum and that the glass surface
may be at a maximum.

The strength of a sash de-
pends upon its construction at
the corners, which should be
made in the strongest way pos-
sible. Figure 44 shows the
mortised, tenoned, and coped
joints of the top and bottom rails. The ends of the
muntins are fastened to the rails by the same method.
The tenon is split a little distance from the edge, as at 6,
or a saw cut is made by a thin saw, and a wedge (c)
driven in, to make the tenon wider upon the outside of
the stile than at the shoulder of the joint, thus forming
a dovetail ; the mortise is cut longer upon the ends to
allow the split tenon to be pushed over. This should
be done at each joint where a tenon comes through to
the outside of the sash, though it is rarely done except

FIG. 43. — SASH MEMBERS.

INSIDE FINISHING

upon the best work, or upon heavy sash. This is not
the method in general use in the manufacture of common
sash ; commonly the tenons are pushed
through, and the wedges driven be-
tween the ends of the mortise and the
tenon. This gives fair satisfaction,
and nearly all sash are made this
way, as it is cheaper and easier. A
hole is sometimes bored, and a pin
driven through the mortise joint, and
in large sash the joint is often draw-
bored.

The attention of the student is
called to the joint between the meet-
ing rails and the stiles (Fig. 45) as this
FIG. 44. — MORTISED AND has to stand hard usage. Most people
in pushing up the bottom sash of a
window lift under the middle of the top or meeting rail,
and if the sash sticks a little, several heavy
blows are usually given under it. In time,
this will break the joint and destroy the
sash ; it may to some extent be prevented
by using the strength as near the stiles as
possible, working one side at a time, if the
sash does not go up easily. To stand this
usage the meeting rail is joined to the stiles
by the dovetailed joint shown at ad, the
strongest form of joint that can be used
upon a sash of this sort.

A stronger form of sash than this is
made, in which the stiles extend beyond FIG 45 _MEET.
the meeting rails about 3", as in Fig. 46. ING RAIL JOINT.

^Sect/on at a a.

WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH

FIG. 46. — THE
STRONGEST FORM
OF MEETING RAIL
JOINT.

This form of sash should be used where the greatest

strength is necessary.

The edges of the meeting rails which form the joint

between the upper and the lower sash are joggled and

beveled; they should fill closely the space

between the upper and lower sashes, as at

6, Fig. 45, occupied by the parting strip,

which will be described later.

A 1" hole, I" deep, should be bored

about 14" from the top of the edge of each

sash as at /, Fig. 43, and a f " groove \"

deep cut from near the hole to the top of

the sash, as shown at b, 6, leaving a space

between its lower end and the hole, as

shown at c. A f" hole should be bored

through c, from the groove to the hole, as

shown at d, to allow a cord to pass through and to keep

the knot in its place.

When the sash are in place, the joint between the

meeting rails is made tight by means of a sash fast,

which pulls them together.

39. Glazing sash. — Glass should be cut about \"

smaller each way than the rabbet, to aljow it to go in
without forcing ; it should be bedded before
being laid in the rabbet. This is done by
covering the part of the rabbet on which
the glass rests with putty, as shown in Fig.
47> a- In order to do this successfully, the
putty should be as soft as it can be handled,
for the glass has to be pressed into it until

it bears evenly, and only about Ty of putty is left between

the glass and the wood, as at a. This pressure should

FIG. 47. — SEC-

TION OF A

GLAZED SASH.

INSIDE FINISHING

FIG. 48. — BEDDING GLASS.

be distributed lightly and evenly, therefore the necessity
of soft putty. Another way of doing this, which is pre-
ferred by many workmen, is to roll a thin layer of soft

putty upon a flat board ; then by
holding the glass at an angle, as
shown in Fig. 48, a narrow strip
of putty is taken off upon each
edge as at a, and the glass laid
in its place and carefully pressed
down. This method can be ap-
plied only in a warm temperature,

as the putty chills quickly. When conditions are right,
it is the best and fastest way of bedding glass.

The glass should be held in place by glazier's points
while the putty sets. These are small triangular pieces
of sheet metal which are driven
into the sash with a chisel as
shown at a, Fig. 49. The putty,
as soft as can be handled, should
be laid in and run down with a
putty knife to the angle shown
at b (also at 6, Fig. 47), care
being used that the putty does
not project beyond the rabbet
of the sash, so as to be visible from the other side.

If an old sash requires a new light of glass, the old
putty should be cut out with a chisel, or if there is time,
soften it with hot, soapy water, or some of the prepara-
tions made for the purpose of removing paint and putty,
of which there are several upon the market. After the
glass is set, the putty should be painted the color of
the rest of the sash.

FIG. 49. — SETTING GLASS.

WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH

40. Stock sizes of sash. — Common sash are made
in stock sizes in a variety sufficient for almost any pur-
pose. These are determined by the regular sizes of
glass, as the following list shows.

This list is for four-light windows, all If", or If" in
thickness ; it will be noticed that an allowance of 5" in
width, and 6" in height, is made for the outside sizes of
the sash, or the size of the frame, between the pulley
stiles in width, and the stool and header in height at 6,
c, Fig. 39; if a different allowance is desired, it easily
may be made.

SIZE OF GLASS

SIZE OF WINDOW

SIZE OF GLASS

SIZE OF WINDOW

10" X 20"

2' 1" X 3' 10"

14" X 26"

2' 9" X 4' 10"

10" X 22"

2' 1" X 4' 2"

14" X 28"

2' 9" X 5' 2"

10" X 24"

2' " X 4' 6"

14" X 30"

2' 9" X 5' 6"

10" X 26"

2' " X 4' 10"

14" X 32"

2' 9" X 5' 10"

10" X 28"

2' " X 5' 2"

14" X 34"

2' 9" X 6' 2"

10" X 30"

2' " X 5' 6"

14" X 36"

2' 9" X 6' 6"

10" X 32"

2' " X 5' 10"

14" X 38"

2' 9" X 6' 10"

10" X 34"

2' " X 6' 2"

14" X 40"

2> 9" x 7/ 2"

10" X 36"

2' " X 6' 6"

14" X 42"

2' 9" X T 6"

12" X 20"

2' 5" X 3' 10"

14" X 44"

2' 9" X T 10"

12" X 22"

2' 5" X 4' 2"

14" X 46"

2' 9" X 8' 2"

12" X 24"

2' 5" X 4' 6"

14" X 48"

2' 9" X 8' 6"

12" X 26"

2' 5" X 4' 10"

15" X 24"

2' 11" X 4' 6"

12" X 28"

2' 5" X 5' 2"

15" X 26"

2' 11" X 4' 10"

12" X 30"

2' 5" X 5' 6"

15" X 28"

2' 11" X 5' 2"

12" X 32"

2' 5" X 5' 10"

15" X 30"

2' 11" X 5' 6"

12" X 34"

2' 5" X 6' 2"

15" X 32"

2' 11" X 5' 10"

12" X 36"

2' 5" X 6' 6"

15" X 34"

2' 11" X 6' 2"

12" X 38"

2' 5" X 6' 10"

15" X 36"

2' 11" X 6' 6"

12" X 40"

2' o" X T 2"

15" X 38"

2' 11" X 6' 10"

12" X 42"

2' 5" X 7' 6"

15" X 40"

2' 11" X 7' 2"

12" X 44"

2' 5" X 1' 10"

15" X 42"

2' 11" X 7' 6"

12" X 46"

2' 5" X 8' 2"

15" X 44"

2' 11" X 7' 10"

12" X 48"

2' 5" X 8' 6"

15" X 46"

2' 11" X 8' 2"

14" X 24"

2' 9" X 4' 6"

15" X 48"

2' 11" X 8' 6"

80 INSIDE FINISHING

Sash are spoken of as 2-, 4-, 8-, or more light ; a hung
window is composed of two sash, the upper and the
lower. Thus in speaking of a window, a carpenter would
say, " a 14 X 28, 4-light window," or " a 10 X 12, 12-
light window," omitting the word " inches," as that is
always understood.

To find the outside size of a sash, its different mem-
bers must be estimated. To allow for any slight varia-
tion in cutting, or for the sash being out of square, the
glass should have J" play; that is, the opening for a
14 X 30 glass should be 14J" X 30J". To this must be
added the width of the stiles between the rabbet and the
outside edge, and the width of the muntins between the
rabbets; the same rule applies in finding the height of
the opening.

Thus the outside dimensions of the sash of a 14 X 30,
4-light window, are 33" X 66".

Single sash may be described as being so many lights of
a certain size, and to avoid mistakes, the size of the glass
and the size of the outside of the sash should be given in
an order, omitting nothing which will make the order
plain.

41. Fitting a sash. — (A.) In jointing the sash to fit
a window frame, the upper one should be fitted first,
the edges being jointed so that the meeting rail will be as
nearly level as possible. The edges of the lower sash
should be jointed so that the tops of the meeting rails of
both sash will be parallel in about the relation shown at
6, Fig. 50; this distance should be taken with dividers
and scribed off the bottom rail of the lower sash, as at
either c or d. If a glazed sash is being fitted, it is ob-
vious that the scribing should be done upon the inside of

WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH

the sash at d, before the stool cap of the window finish is

nailed on, though it is equally plain that the best place

upon which to scribe the bottom rail of an unglazed sash

is upon the outside at c, as the inside, at d,

will be out of sight when the stool cap is

in place. A bevel should be set to the

angle of the window stool with the pulley

stile, and the bottom rail of the sash planed

to fit it. The sash should be made to bear

a little harder upon the outside than it does

upon the inside, as at e, to prevent the

water from driving under. When the sash

are properly fitted, the tops of the meeting

rails will be flush, as at /. The sides of

the sash should be made to run easily,

but not enough to rattle perceptibly.

(B.) Sash generally should be fitted FIG. 50.- FITTING
and hung before the house is plastered;
at all events before the finish is put up, as the house is
thereby closed against the weather. Another advantage
in hanging the sash before the finish is put on is that the
cord may be pushed through the pulley from the window
opening, and the weight tied on ; the cord may then be
cut and fastened to the sash without taking the pocket of
the frame out, obviously an easier and more economical
way than to hang the sash after the house is finished
inside. If it is necessary that the house should be finished
before the sash are hung, the weights are usually put in,
and the cord run through the pulley from the back of
the stile. A knot is then tied in it, so that it will not
slip back, after which the sash may be put in at any
time, as the cord is ready for it. This is not a desirable

82 INSIDE FINISHING

thing to do, as the cord is in the way in jointing the
upper sash.

If sash are not hung, nor the cord put in before the
standing finish is put on, it will be necessary to remove
the pocket of the window frame and to pass the cord
over the pulley from the outside, and to pull it down to
the pocket between the back of the pulley stile and the
stud by means of a " mouse." This is a small weight
which can be pushed through a pulley ; it is often made
on the job by tying a nail on a string, or by rolling a piece
of sheet lead around the end of a piece of twine. After
the other end of the twine has been tied to the end of
the window cord which is to go through the pulley, the
mouse may be pushed through the pulley and allowed to
drop down between the stud and the pulley stile until it
may be grasped by the hand through the pocket, at pt
of Fig. 39. The weight is then tied on and pulled up to
the back of the pulley; the sash is put in its place at
the bottom of the opening in which it is to slide, and
the cord cut off about 4" below the I" hole in the edge
of the sash at/, Fig. 43.

The end of the cord should then be pushed through
the I" hole (d, Fig. 43) and the knot tied, when the sash
is ready for the stop strips which are to hold it in place.

42. Hotbed or skylight sash are made upon a prin-
ciple entirely different from those in ordinary use, as
they must be so constructed that water will run off
easily. They are made to lay upon a pitch which should
be not less than 2" to a foot. There are no middle rails ;
the bottom rail is thinner than the stiles or the top rail,
the glass extending over it, so that the water will have
no obstruction in its flow.

WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH

Upon sash of this description, the glass usually is
lapped about 1" over the pane below, with no putty in
the joint. It is bedded and puttied at the sides by the
usual method, the glass being held in place by glazier's
points, and prevented from dropping down while the
putty is setting by means of a glazier's point bent to
hold the glass or by a small brad driven in the sash be-

FIG. 51. — SKYLIGHT SASH.

low each pane of glass, as at a, Fig. 51. These brads or
points should be driven so that the putty will cover
them.

The sash for hotbeds and greenhouses need not be
placed with so much care to prevent leakage as would
seem necessary; the glass may be cut as square as pos-
sible, and laid end to end with a butt joint, instead of
lapping as shown at 6, Fig. 51 ; a strip is then screwed
upon the frame of the sash to hold the glass in its place,
as shown at a, Fig. 52. This eliminates all putty, and

84 INSIDE FINISHING

allows repairs to be made easily, and the water which
will leak through, if the glass is cut accurately, is insig-
nificant.

In hanging a skylight sash, the joints should be made
rain-proof by some method similar to that shown in Fig.
51, at sections c, d, e, in which strips are fastened upon
the sash in such a way as to allow the sash to be lifted
easily, but which will be water-tight when the sash is
closed. The worst feature of a skylight is the condensa-
tion of moisture from
the inside of the house
"* upon it, the dropping of
which is often mistaken
for a leak. This may
be remedied by an ar-

F.O. 52. -HOTBKP G^ F«AMES. nmgement of grooves

and gutters to carry the

condensation away and allow it to run out of doors upon
the roof. This is not practicable nor advisable, unless
there is a considerable area of roof to be treated, as in
a dwelling house the skylights are rarely of a size which
will make this an important matter.

There are patent forms of hothouse frames, similar to
Fig. 52, 6, which will care for the condensation of large
areas of glass.

43. Store sash. — Sash for store fronts are of the
same construction at the corners as other sash, except
that the stiles and rails are heavier and should be put in
place with the molded side out, instead of the puttied
side, as in common sash. In store fronts large lights are
sometimes held in place with a bead instead of putty, as
in Fig. 53 ; this allows a certain amount of elasticity, as

WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 85

the bead will spring and allow the glass to move a little,
so that a strain, which would break the glass if it were
held rigidly with putty, may do no damage.

If a large glass is broken, pieces may be left which
would be of value if they could be removed safely, and
the bead setting makes this pos-
sible. This method of setting
glass has its disadvantages if the
sash is to be exposed to the rain.
This may be remedied by bed-
ding the glaSS Upon the OUtside FIG. 53. — SETTING GLASS IN

with putty, or rubber tape.

Such bedding alone will not hold the glass sufficiently to
interfere with removing it, if necessary, by simply taking
out the bead from the inside of the sash.

In making glass doors which are to receive hard usage,
the molded side of the door should fit against the rabbet
of the doorframe, so that the weight of the glass will be
against the wood instead of against the putty and points
when the door is slammed.

44. Blinds are made in factories under the same con-
ditions as are sash and window frames. They are ordered
generally by the size of the glass, the same as sash.
They usually are hung upon gravity hinges, which are
so made that when the blind is swung past the center in
either direction, it will swing the rest of the way itself,
and will remain either open or closed.

Upon window frames which have blind stops, the
blinds are hung between the outside casings, but if the
frame has nothing but the casing outside of the pulley
stile, the blinds are hung with special hinges. This latter
is the usual method of hanging blinds in certain parts of

86 INSIDE FINISHING

the country; in other places the gravity hinges are more
popular.

SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

37. Under what conditions are common window frames made?
Describe and compare the frames in common use in different parts of
the country. What should be the pitch of a window stool ? What
provision is made to allow the cord to be repaired ? What is the differ-
ence between the frames of a wooden and of a brick building ? How are
the latter usually fastened in the wall ? How is the joint between the
stone sill and the window stool made tight? What is the principal
difference between the frames for common and the best work ? What
is the advantage of the latter ? What kind of frame is it that has two
or more windows in the same frame ? What is the objection to pulleys
made of light metal ? How should the sash in a casement frame swing ?
Why? How should a center hung sash be hung? Should a pivot
hung sash be used for an outside window ?

38. What is the chief difference in the construction of the sash in
different parts of the country ? Name and describe the different mem-
bers of a sash. What kind of stock should be used in the manufacture
of sash ? What is apt to happen if the sash springs after the glass is
set? Describe the joint used at the top and bottom rails of the sash.
What is the best method of wedging the tenons of the mortise joints?
Describe the joint of the meeting rails. Describe the form of sash which
does away with the weakness of the ordinary sash at the meeting rail.
What should be done to a sash to prepare it for the cord ?

39. How should the size of the glass compare with the size of the
rabbet ? How is glass held in place until the putty sets ? What should
be the condition of the putty used in setting glass ? Describe bedding
a sash. How should a job of glazing be finished ?

40. What is the basis for estimating the size of a sash ? How does
the carpenter speak of the size of a sash or window ? How is the out-
side size of a sash estimated ? Should the glass be the same size as the
rabbet ?

41. Describe the process of hanging sash before the building is
plastered. What is the advantage of doing this ?

42. Compare a hotbed or skylight sash with the ordinary form.

WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 87

How is glass for hotbeds and greenhouses often laid and held hi place ?
What is the most objectionable feature of a skylight sash? How may
the trouble be remedied?

43. Describe the construction of the sash of a store front. What is
the safest way to set a large glass in an inside frame ? Compare the
value of beads and putty for setting large glass. Upon which side of a
glass door should the glass be set ? Why ?

44. What is the basis for ordering blinds? What kinds of hinges
are generally used ?

CHAPTER V
STAIR BUILDING

45. Making measurements. - - The principal dimen-
sions to be ascertained in measuring for a stairway are
the rise and run. The term rise denotes the extreme
height between the top of the lower floor and the top of
the floor above, or the actual distance to be mounted in
going from one floor to another ; the term run refers to
the horizontal distance which the treads must cover. It
depends upon the size of the riser and of the tread whether
or not an " easy " flight of stairs may be built.

Usually in localities where there is considerable build-
ing in progress, there are men, called stair builders, who
make a specialty of this part of house construction, and
who can do the work more cheaply than can the ordinary
all-round workman. It is their custom to measure the
building for the stairs after the floor joists are in place, as
then there is less liability for mistakes. In fact, this cus-
tom is followed in every case possible in getting out any
kind of finish.

A carefully dimensioned sketch of the stair opening is
made, and the headroom calculated at the building, if
there is any doubt as to the possibility of constructing a
satisfactory stairway. This sketch should include the
arrangement of the treads, platforms, landings, winders,
and all dimensions necessary to enable the material to be
prepared accurately at the shop.

STAIR BUILDING

46. Laying out stairs. — For an example of the method
of laying out a flight of stairs, we will imagine a room 8'
in the clear between the floor and the plastered ceiling,
as in Fig. 54. Allowing the plaster and laths to be f "

FIG. 54. — METHOD OF LAYING OUT A STAIRWAY.

thick, the floor joists 8" thick, and a single matched floor
\" thick, the entire rise of the flight will be 8' + f " + 8"
+ I", which is 8' 9f ", or 105f ", = 105.625."

In order to find the exact height of the riser, which is
usually the first part of the stairs calculated, we assume
that 14 risers will be necessary to make an easy ascent;
therefore the height of each will be 105.625 -4- 14 = 7.54",
or a little more than 7J". This rise may be satisfactory
for a flight of stairs which has to be crowded into a small
space, or where economy of space is necessary, but as it
is desirable that the height of a step should be less than
that, we will allow 15 risers to be used; therefore, the

90 INSIDE FINISHING

height of each will be 105.625 -f- 15 - 7.04", which will
make a much better rise.

The height of the riser being found, the next thing is
to find the width of the tread. If a straight run or a
straight flight of stairs is being built, the horizontal dis-
tance between the starting and stopping points (a, of Fig.
54) may be divided into any number of treads ; but if the
flight has either a platform or winding treads, a plan should
be sketched showing the location of the face of each riser,
as in Fig. 55. A tread may be of any width sufficient to
allow the foot to rest upon it safely, and the riser of any
desired height not too high to reach easily by lifting the
foot, but experience has shown that a certain range of
proportions gives the best satisfaction. One method, as
simple as any, of finding the width of the tread to fit a
certain rise, is to subtract the sum of two risers from 24 ;
the difference will equal the width of the tread. Thus,
24 -- (2 X 7.04) = 9.92, practically 10 ; the flight would
be spoken of as a 1" X 10" flight. The width of the tread
is between the riser lines, as at b, b ; to find the exact
width of the board which is to form the tread, it will be
necessary to add to this the projection of the tread beyond
the riser line for the nosing or finish of the front edge of
the tread, usually 1", as at I. Thus the board forming a
10" tread will actually be 11" wide, as at c, c, I, of the two
lower steps.

Another common method of finding the width of the
tread is to divide 66 by the height of the riser; thus,
sf. = 9f ", or the width of the tread. The student will
see that the two most common methods give different
results, therefore we may make the applications of the
above rules somewhat elastic, as circumstances demand.

STAIR BUILDING

ffatform

•d

Experience has shown that a rise of between 1" and 7f ",
and a tread of from 9f " to lOf " will give a satisfactory
flight of stairs for ordinary use. For public buildings,
and where the stairs are to be used by children to a great
extent, the risers should be not over 1" high, and the treads
should not be more than 12" wide.

Figure 55 shows a place where a flight of stairs requires
a platform and winders. It will be seen that there are
15 risers and 14 treads,
as the upper floor takes
the place of the top
tread.

In planning a flight
of stairs, the number
of risers is the first
consideration, as the
number and height of
these determine the
width of the treads,

Which must not be too FlG

narrow, nor too wide
for safety and comfort. In this case, though a platform
would be desirable at both turns, it is plain that the two
winders are necessary to allow the treads of the rest of
the stairs to be of a satisfactory width. An extra tread
could be placed in the lower run, but to have placed
another tread in the upper run, which would have been
necessary if a platform had been used, would have made
each of the five treads in that run too narrow.

It is good practice to plan the winders so that at 18"
from the post, they will be about the same width as the
treads of the rest of the stairway; four winding treads will

Lower f/eer-

second f//pM

55. — METHOD OF TURNING THE ANGLES
OF A STAIRWAY.

92 INSIDE FINISHING

be too narrow, and two treads in the winder would be too
wide for safety and comfort.

47. Headroom. — It is necessary that judgment should
be used in planning the headroom, or the vertical dis-
tance between the lower steps and the under side of
the floor above (see d, d, Fig. 54), as any less than 1' 2"
will not allow a large piece of furniture to be moved from
one floor to another without danger of defacing the wall.
Though a headroom of 6' 6" will allow a person of aver-
age height to pass without danger, any less than 1' 2"
appears cramped, and is inconvenient ; any more than
this distance that can be allowed will add much to the
appearance, as a roomy stairway gives the impression
of spaciousness to the hall and to the whole house.

48. Stringers. — (A.) Stringers or carriages (e, Fig. 54)
are the timbers or joists upon which the treads and risers
are fastened, and as they support and give strength to the
stairs, they should be made of lumber which is free from
weakening defects.

Figure 56 shows one method of laying out a stringer.
The full rise in inches is taken upon the tongue of a steel

or framing square, and the
^ run or tread upon the blade,
spacing off one tread at a
time. If done with reason-
able accuracy, this method
is satisfactory for ordinary

or foot of the stringer can be moved a little to com-
pensate for any slight inaccuracy; but if intended for
a place where a greater degree of exactness is necessary,
another method should be used. The entire length of

STAIR BUILDING 93

the stair stringer should be laid out upon the piece, as
between/ and g of Fig. 54, which is the length of the
stringer, regardless of the projection at h, which furnishes
a nailing for the laths of the ceiling, at the same tune
making a stronger fastening possible. The angles and
distances of x and y should be calculated carefully, and
accurately laid off upon the stringer to be cut, the posi-
tions of the points y being averaged so as to make all
the steps of the same size. This is the method in most
common use. The length between the points / and g of
Fig. 54, may be found mathematically by using the follow-
ing formula : —

R = run of stringer, to g.
A = rise of stringer, to /.
H = hypotenuse or bridge measure.

H == Vfl 2 + A\

The pitch board, shown in Fig. 57, is preferred to the
framing square by many workmen; it consists of a right-
angled triangle of thin wood of the
same dimensions as one of the steps,
fastened to the side of another piece
as shown. It is apparent that if the
pitch board is used for the same pur-
pose as the steel square in Fig. 56, it FlG- 57.— THE PITCH

• ui . BOARD.

will be a convenience.

After the points of the stringer have been accurately
laid out as described in the second paragraph of this topic,
the exercise of a little judgment will make it possible to
locate the intervening points y, of Fig. 56, so that any
slight inaccuracies will not be apparent.

The pieces which are cut out of the side stringers may

INSIDE FINISHING

be spiked upon the crowning edge of a piece of scantling,
and used for the center stririg, instead of cutting another
timber ; in doing this, care should be used that the tread
and riser lines are exactly in line with each other, which
may be best assured by marking all by the first one made,
working from points y of Fig. 54 and Fig. 56. The rough
stringers are usually put in place as
soon as possible for the convenience
of the workmen.

If the face or outside string is to
be of the same wood as the finish of
the house, and is intended to take the
place of the face casing or skirting
board, the risers should be mitered
into it, as shown at a and 6, Fig. 58.
Stairs built of this form of finish, that
is, the ends of the steps open except
at the balusters, are called an open
string flight. The style is in common
use, as it may be built as simply or
FIG. 58. — INTERSECTION as elaborately as desired. Upon ordi-

OF RISERS AND FACE -, , -, /. . .

STRINGER. nary work, the lace stringer above

described is the form in most common
use, but upon better work it is the custom to put the
face casing on after the house is plastered, as it is apt to
become discolored and marred before the stairs are ready
for finishing.

(B.) The skirting board is sometimes fitted against the
treads and risers, making a square joint, as shown at a,
Fig. 59. The nosing is cut off, as at 6, so that the skirting
board may be more easily fitted. This method is used to
some extent upon common work ; the worst thing about

STAIR BUILDING

FIG. 59. — FITTING A SKIRT-
ING BOARD ; METHOD 1.

it is, that the seasoning of the build-
ing and of the skirting board will
cause the joints to open eventually.
It is a nice piece of work to fit the
wall skirting board to the steps, but
if done ever so carefully by the
above method, the work will, on
account of the shrinking of the
material, in a few months look like
a botch job.

Another method is to cut the
skirting board into the treads and
risers as shown in Fig. 60; the sec-
tion a, a shows the groove which is continuous across both
risers and treads, the nosing being cut out to allow the

skirting board to fit be-
tween the end of the tread
and the wall. This makes
a very good job, and is a
more economical method
than that shown in Fig.
61, where the wall skirting
board (a) is wide enough
to receive the treads and
risers, which are grooved,
or housed in. A place is
cut in the back of the ver-
tical groove, as at 6, and
in the bottom of the hori-
zontal groove, as at c, to

FIG. 60. -FITTING A SKIRTING BOARD; receive the WedgCS (d) , by

METHOD 2. means of which the tread

INSIDE FINISHING

and riser may be pressed firmly into their places. This
is the method commonly used upon the best work, and
if the work is well done and of seasoned stock, there never
will be any trouble from the opening of the joints, against
which it is the first thought of the finished workman to

guard. In this method,
the nosing (e) and the
scotia (/) both should be
cut into the skirting board ;
however, the latter is some-
times butted against it.

In making attic and
cellar stairs, and stairs in
cheap buildings, a wide
skirting board is some-

FIG. 61. — FITTING A SKIRTING BOARD; times nailed to the Stud-

METHOD 3. ding, and the treads and

risers butted against it, supported by furring strips nailed
to the skirting board. This method should be used only
upon the most common work, since the joints are certain
to open as the building seasons.

In building closed string, buttress, or curb stairs, the
construction of which is illustrated in Fig. 62, the treads
and risers are frequently housed into the wall string,
or wall skirting board, as at a, and into the inside of
the buttress, or face string, as at 6, by the same method,
and firmly wedged and nailed. The rest of the closed
or buttress string is then built upon the inside piece, as
at c. In constructing buttress stairs, the flight sometimes
is built clear of any wall or other support, in which case
the buttresses should be made of sufficient strength to
support the flight and the heaviest load they ever will be

STAIR BUILDING

required to carry. If stringers are used, they should be
far enough from the skirting . board (6) to allow wedges
to be driven which will force the treads and risers into
their places, as illustrated in Fig. 61. If it is desired to
build an economical flight of stairs of this type, a plank,

FIG. 62. — CONSTRUCTION OF BUTTRESS STAIRS; METHOD 1.

face stringer may be used, housed the same as the wall
stringer, as indicated at n, Fig. 76.

Another method is shown in Fig. 63, in which the skirting
board (a) of the face string is housed into the treads and
risers ; this is the stronger way, as the joints are less liable
to open than if built by the other method, since the frame-
work which supports the buttress, rail, and face casing

INSIDE FINISHING

is fastened to the treads
and risers. There are other
methods of constructing a
buttress string, but the two
above indicate those ordi-
narily used.

In places where lumber of
the proper dimensions can-
not be secured, a stringer
is sometimes built by a
method similar to one of
those illustrated in Fig. 64.
A built stringer, however,
is rarely satisfactory for any
but very light flights.

Figure 65 shows two
methods of fastening the
heads, or tops of stringers,
either of which is satisfac-
tory, and may be used where
the stairs are not supported
by section posts.
49. Forms of stairs. — There are different forms of stairs
which may be adapted to various shapes of stair openings.

FIG. 63. — CONSTRUCTION OF BUTTR
STAIRS ; METHOD 2.

FIG. 64. — METHODS OF BUILDING STRINGERS.

STAIR BtflLDiNG

The straight run (Fig. 54) has no turn, being straight
from top to bottom, and is an inexpensive form of stairs to
build. It is preferred upon common work for that reason,
although a flight of this sort cannot be made so attractive
as if it had an angle with a platform. It is less ornamental,

FIG. 65. — METHODS OF FASTENING THE TOPS OF STRINGERS.

and is used less than any other form, though in buildings
where large crowds are to be accommodated the architect
tries to secure a straight flight if possible.

A platform flight (Fig. 55) is a popular form, as it makes
a safe and easy ascent. It may be made as ornamental
as desired, and is frequently the center of the decorative
scheme of an elaborate hallway. The figure shows a plat-
form, illustrating all the turns of a full platform flight.

A winding flight usually is avoided as much as possible,
as the narrow treads close to the post or rail cause many
accidents, besides appearing small and pinched, as com-
pared with the broad turns of a platform flight. A wind-
ing flight rarely should have more than four risers in the
winding posts, though in attic or cellar stairs this is not
observed, unless there is plenty of room. The upper half
of Fig. 68 shows the plan; a full winding flight would
make all of its turns by winders.

1 00 '!£

FINISHING

A dog-leg flight (Fig; 66) sometimes is used where it is
necessary to economize in room and as wide a flight of stairs
as possible is desired. The face string of the lower flight
is directly under that of the upper flight, making an awk-
ward place to receive the rail and balusters of the lower

flight, since either they must
stop under the face string of
the upper flight, or there must
be an easement to allow the
hand to pass by, as at a. This
makes the lower flight nar-
rower. The rail therefore is
frequently omitted between
the place where the rail ease-
ment occurs and the post.

A box flight is built between
two walls, and is the cheapest
form of stairs to build, as there
is no finish upon the outside,
a skirting board being fitted
against the steps at each side
by one of the methods previ-
ously described, and a rail
fastened to either one or both
of the walls.

The method commonly used
in framing the face string of
stairs into the posts is shown in Fig. 67, where a finished
face string (a) is used. A tenon is cut upon the end
of the string to fit the mortise in the post, as shown at b.
If the angle is turned by a platform, the risers (c, c') are
also mortised into the section posts, as shown at d, d, the

FIG. 66. — DOG-LEG STAIRS.

STAIR

101

CARRIAGES AND RISERS WITH

THE SECTION POST'

top of the upper riser (c') being the height of one step above
the top of c. If the angle is being turned by winders, the
risers, c and c', are the lower and
upper risers entering the section
post.

Upon ordinary work the wind-
ing risers (e, e), shown by dotted T
lines, usually are sawed to the
correct bevel and nailed to the
winding post ; upon good work,
and wherever the greatest strength
is necessary, they should be ten- FlG 67
oned into the section posts at the
angle of their intersection, as in-
dicated. These mortises should be placed so that the
faces of the risers or face string will set back from the
corner of the post the distance g, or enough to allow the

nosing of the tread to stop
against the post, and to bring
the center line of the handrail
and balusters in the center
of the post. This distance
will be governed partly by the
projection of the finish of the
tread, and principally by the
size of the balusters, rail, and
post. If a post 3f " square is
to be used, the distance g will
generally be about l^".

50. Stair posts. — (A.) Stair posts are placed at the
bottom, top, and angles of the stairs, as indicated in Fig.
68, the plan of a flight of stairs showing the location of

Poste

/ VJtO

d. Weu/e/ CL.jLctncbny

b.Pta/for/n e. Ga//ery

c, Uf/nti/'ny f, Start/'np

FIG. 68. — LOCATION OF STAIR
POSTS.

102

FINISHING

every stair post in common use. Figure 69 shows the
method by which the squares receiving the carriages and
rails are laid out.

(B.) The horizontal dotted lines denote the height of
the risers, and the vertical dotted lines show the width of
the treads ; the points of intersection of these lines show the
pitch of the stairs, with which the handrail is parallel, the
angle of the pitch and the height of the handrail govern-
ing the vertical dimensions of the squares and turnings
of the posts.

The newel post (a, Fig. 68) is located at the bottom of the
flight, and is larger and more ornamental than the section
posts, as it generally occupies a prominent place in the
hall. The bottom square should extend 3" above the top
of the bottom tread and, if it is to receive more than one
riser, the bottom end of the square should be enough
longer to allow the risers to enter and leave the 3" space
above the top of the tread, the rest of the post being
unchanged.

The platform post (b) is located at the angle formed by
two short runs, a platform being the means of making
the turn. It will be seen in Fig. 69 that there are three
squares to this post, the two upper ones receiving the rails
of the runs, 1 and 2, which form the angle in the stairs, and
the lowest square receiving the carriages.

The winding post is shown at c, the bottom square ex-
tending high enough to allow it to receive the rail of the
second section. It varies in length to allow the winding
risers and the face stringers of the runs, 2 and 3, of the
stairs to be mortised into it, the face of the stringer, or
the face of the casing being kept back from the outside
corner of the post 1J", to allow the nosing or finish of

STAIR BUILDING

103

104 INSIDE FINISHING

the tread to land back of the corner of the post. This is
observed in all the posts, so that there will be a place
against which the finish of the steps may be stopped.

The risers of the winding treads are mortised into the
bottom square, radiating from a point 1 \" from the lower
and inside face of the post, as shown in Fig. 69. The
mortises should enter the post at the same angle at which
the risers intersect it, the shoulder of the tenon upon the
riser being upon the back side. In setting the posts,
stringers, and risers, it is obvious that the posts and risers
of the angles should be set simultaneously.

The landing .post (d) is located at the head of the stairs ;
the upper square receives the rail of the third section of
the flight of stairs, and the rail of the landing or the gallery
which extends to the starting post (/) of the next flight.
The bottom square extends below the ceiling, and is fin-
ished with a rosette on the bottom. The other landing
post is the same as d, but receives no rail from the stairs ;
it supports one end of the gallery rail extending to the gal-
lery post (e).

The gallery post (e) is to support the end of the rail which
extends between it and the left landing post (d) . This post
usually is cut in halves, one part being fastened to the wall,
where it makes a better appearance than if the whole
post were used.

The starting post (/), used to start the second flight, just
as the newel post starts the bottom flight, should receive
the gallery rail from the right landing post, d.

(C.) All of these posts; except the gallery post, should
be mortised to receive the stringers or carriages, and the
joists of the gallery or landing ; if the work is well done and
the risers well fastened to the wall, the stairs will need no

STAIR BUILDING

105

additional support under the face stringer. However,
unless there is another flight of stairs underneath, it
usually is studded up for a closet.

Any stair post may be laid out by the above method,
but in practice the builder will generally order his stair
stock from the mill, or building supply house, or will have
the stair-builder do the work. For ordinary work, the
stock sizes of posts will be satisfactory, for by the exercise
of a little judgment they can be made to fit stairs of almost
any dimensions.

The squares of stock posts furnished by mills and supply
houses are usually suitable for a rise of 1\" or l\n ',
these being about the average rises used for stairs.

The following table gives the vertical dimensions of
posts which will, in most cases, be satisfactory ; their loca-
tions are indicated upon Fig. 68. If a larger post is used,
the squares should be lengthened, and the turnings short-
ened proportionately.

TABLE OF VERTICAL DIMENSIONS OF STAIR POSTS

KIND OF POST

SIZE

BASE

TURNING

SQUARE

TURNING

SQUARE

HEAD

Newel . .
Platform
Winding . .
Landing . .
Starting . .
Gallery

6"X6"
4"X4"
4" X4"
4" X4"
4"X4"
4"X4"

10"
25"

49"
19"
21"
16"

22"

13M"

1VA"
20"
15"
22"

71A"
71A"
71A"

10"

17^"
7^"

2y2"

7K"

Concerning the sizes of the posts in the above table, it
will be well to remember that a 6" X 6" post will be about
5f" X 5f", and a 4" X 4" post will be about 3f" X 3f "
when they have been planed on all four sides, though the

106 INSIDE FINISHING

usual way of speaking of them is upon the basis of their
sawed dimensions.

If it is necessary that the base, or bottom square, of the
newel post should receive more than one riser, or that the
bottom square of the winder receive more than four risers,
and the top end of the lower stringer or carriage, the ag-
gregate height of the desired risers may be added to the
length of the bottom square. If the angle included in the
winder contains three risers, instead of four, the top of the
bottom square should be lengthened the height of one
riser, and the turning shortened an equal distance, to allow
a landing for the top of the lower rail against the bottom
square of the post.

The distance a of the newel post (Fig. 69) may be
about the same as distance b of the platform post, though
the newel post is sometimes set so that the bottom riser
will come 1 \" from the front of the post, instead of 3J" as
indicated. This requires that there should be one less
baluster upon the lower tread, and that the shaft of the
post should be enough longer to allow the rail to land in
the middle of the vertical height of the square. The di-
mensions indicated upon the table will generally be satis-
factory, as the bottom square is often made somewhat
longer than necessary, in anticipation of the necessity of
adjustment and of scribing it to the floor. The height of
the rail may be varied a little to allow it to come as near
the middle of the square as possible.

The bottom square of a winding post, unless laid out
for a certain place, should be about three inches longer
than actually required, as any variation in the rise should
be corrected at this place if possible, rather than by raising
or lowering the rails sufficiently to make them perceptibly

STAIR BUILDING 107

out of pitch. The rosettes (/) should be turned separately,
and nailed on after the bottom square has been cut to its
exact length. This is the practice of many stair-builders,
but others prefer to have the rosette turned on the post,
and allow the bottom square to extend as it will below the
ceiling or stair stringer.

The bottom squares of the landing, gallery, and starting
posts are usually so cut that they apparently extend
through the floor. They are notched over the thickness of
the floor, which includes the ceiling, floor joists, and floor-
ing, to rest against the side of the floor joist or header, the
bottom end of the post showing its full size, ornamented
with a rosette, as at d of the starting post. It is the cus-
tom of some stair builders to face the thickness of the
gallery landing or floor its entire length, and notch the
bottom square of the posts as above described; however,
the post rests against the facing instead of the facing
being cut against the post; in this case, the post projects
1J" to receive the nosing and scotia of the finish.

Upon common work, the riser between the last tread
and the floor level, and the facing of the thickness of the
floor, are often cut in square between the posts with a
simple butt joint, but in the better class of buildings they
are mortised into the posts, the same as in the winder and
platform posts. It is plain that the former method will be
affected by any settling of the building, while by the
latter, the joints will not open. The bottom of a post
which extends down upon a plastered or paneled wall, or
in a corner, should be finished as shown by the bottom
square of the gallery post.

A turned post should be laid out accurately, or there may
be trouble in making the rails, stringers, and risers join

108 INSIDE FINISHING

it properly. Upon the best class of work, turned posts
are rarely used, some simply designed square post being
in much better taste, in which case the connections may
be made more easily, the post being cut to length at the
bottom end, when its length can be measured exactly at
the building.

51. Treads and risers. — Different methods of putting
the treads and risers together are illustrated in Fig. 70.

The method shown at

r » Fzt/^g&y V>Z&S//'A LA

a is in common use
upon the better class
of work, as the tongue

a W and. groove joint be-

FIG. 70. — CONSTRUCTION OF TREADS AND tween the tread and

RISERS. . ,. .

riser at h prevents dirt

from sifting through, and minimizes the effect of the
shrinking of the tread and riser.

Some stair builders tongue and groove the riser into the
tread above it, as shown at 6, but the front edge of the
tread is thereby weakened, so that when it is somewhat
worn from rough usage, it will break off more easily than
if the groove were not there. The cheapest form of con-
struction is shown at c, all of the joints being square, with
no grooves. This form is suitable for the cheapest class
of work only.

The forms of moldings or nosings in common use for
finishing the edges of treads are shown at d, Fig. 70, and
the scotia at e.

A method of embellishing the risers of a flight of stairs
which is capable of either simple or elaborate application
is illustrated in Fig. 71. This method requires that a
distance equal to the thickness of the scroll should be cut

STAIR BUILDING

109

off from the shoulder, or from the plumb cut of the top of
the stringer, and that the mortise in the post should be
set back an equal distance, as it is obvious that the face
of the scroll should be considered the face of the stringer,
and the mortises in the posts made accordingly. This
method differs from the plain miter only in the addition
of the scroll, in cutting the shoulder of the stringer to
allow the risers to come where they would if a plain
stringer were used, and in fitting a
piece the same thickness as the
scroll to prevent a hole between
the face of the stringer and the
back of the nosing (&). The risers
and treads should of course extend
to the outside of the scroll. The
nosing, or the finish of the ends of
the tread (6), is a separate piece,
mitered into the front edge of the
tread at c ; the scotia (d) is mi-
tered around the scroll at e. The
back end of the nosing (b) should
be returned upon itself in its proper
relation with the scotia (d) and
the bottom of the scroll of the riser above, which should
be designed with this in view.

A single piece of molding consisting of the nosing and
scotia is sometimes used upon cheap work, as the end fin-
ish of the treads. In this case the ends of the treads are
cut off flush with the face stringer, the front corner being
mitered to receive the nosing of the end molding ; the
scotia under the front edge of the tread is then mitered
in the usual way.

FIG. 71. — A METHOD OF
FINISHING THE ENDS or
TREADS, AND OF MITERING
A RISER AND FACE SCROLL.

110

INSIDE FINISHING

52. Circular stair risers. — A circular stair riser, illus-
trated in Fig. 72, is frequently needed, and one method
by which it may be made is illustrated by Fig. 21. After
the saw kerfs have been made, the riser is bent around a
form and glued permanently, as at a, 6, Fig. 72, and held
in place by hand screws, as at c, c until the glue sets. The
tread is fastened by nailing into the solid block (a, b).

A circling riser is sometimes built as shown at b, Fig. 72,
the board being sawed, or planed thin enough to bend
around the block (e} /). It is then glued there, being held

a b "'^o c

FIG. 72. — METHODS OF MAKING A CURVED RISER.

in place by a piece of sheet iron (g) which is fastened to
blocks (h)j and held in place by hand screws, as at c, c,
until the glue is set.

Another method is shown at c, Fig. 72, in which the
riser is resawed, as shown at j, and pieces of paper, paste-
board, or wood veneer (k), the thickness of the saw cuts
placed in the cuts, and the joints filled with glue. The
whole is then bent around a form, being held in place by
some method similar to that illustrated at b. After the
glue has set, the riser may be treated as straight. This

STAIR BUILDING

111

method may be used to make circular work of any kind,
soffits, bases, etc., it being an application of the method
explained in Topic 18, B. A curved board, made of thin
pieces glued around a form, is the strongest kind.

53. Handrails. — There are many different designs of
handrail, or stair rail, a few of which are shown in Fig. 73 ;

FIG. 73. — FORMS OF HANDRAILS.

only expense and individual taste can decide which is to
be preferred, one of the principal considerations being the
ease with which the rail fits the hand.

Figure 74 shows the usual methods of fastening rails to
the posts, — a being suitable for use only upon the cheapest

FIG. 74. — METHODS OP FASTENING HANDRAILS TO POSTS.

work and b indicating the best method for making a per-
manent job.

Sometimes it is necessary to splice a rail, though this
should be done only as. a last resort. If the long splice

r j iM^ u

* r-\ .-^ A ^^ ^ ^

112 INSIDE FINISHING

method, shown at a, Fig. 75, is used, the point of the splice
on the top of the rail should be pointed downstairs, and
care should be taken to see that the rail is straight. If the

rail bolt method is

, ...
used, as illustrated

at 6, Fig. 75, the
rail should be han-

FIG. 75.- M™ or SrL,c,NG H!NDBAILS. dled carefully until

it is in place, as a

sudden twist or wrench may break the joint. The method
shown at a is generally used on the best work. A splice
always should be made as near the end as possible, and
not in the middle of the rail.

The material from which handrails are made should be
straight-grained and seasoned thoroughly, for if a rail
springs after it is in place, the defect is difficult to remedy.

A handrail that is so long that it is not stiff enough
sideways is often strengthened in the middle by a cast-iron
baluster of the same design as the others, to the bottom
of which has been added an angle-iron or brace, so that its
bottom end may be set rigidly ; the braces are covered by
the finish. This baluster may be painted to match the
rest of the stairs ; if well done, its presence can be detected
only by an expert.

54. Balusters. — Balusters are of many designs, suited
to different styles of stairs, those with squares being used
for the more expensive work. The balusters which are
turned their entire length commonly are used upon stairs
where economy is an object, though upon the best designed
stairs a square, straight, or tapered baluster is frequently
used.

Balusters are fastened to stairs by methods illustrated

STAIR BUILDING

113

in Fig. 76. At a is shown the method used in fastening
square-ended balusters in the best open string work ; they
are mortised into the under side of the rail, as at b and
section k, and dovetailed into the tread before the return
or end nosing of the tread is put' on. At c is shown the
method by which the same style of baluster is fastened
upon the cheaper grade of stairs; the top is cut at the

0 Jed/on o

oect/onp

FIG. 76. — TYPES OF BALUSTERS
AND METHODS OF SETTING THEM.

pitch of the rail and nailed, and a hole
bored into the tread to receive the pin
(/) which is turned on the bottom end
of the square. At d is indicated the
method by which round balusters usually
are set upon the best class of work, and
at e is shown a cheaper method, the
same as method c, applied to round
balusters. In methods c, rf, and e,

114 INSIDE FINISHING

the end finish of the treads (b, Fig. 71) should be in place
before the hole is bored to receive the dowel (/).

In setting the balusters of a closed string flight, the tops
and bottoms are sometimes treated as at g, though there
is another method by which the balusters are set, as at h,
the pieces, j, being fitted between the balusters at both the
top and the bottom.

The lengths of the balusters upon most open string work
are 2' 4" and 2' 8", as the top of the rail is supposed to be
30" from the tread, measuring from the riser line, and the
same distance from the gallery floor.

55. Handrailing. — Laying out and making a wreath,
or ease-off, or, as the process is called, " handrailing," forms
one of the most interesting pieces of small work which the
carpenter or stair-builder is called upon to do. The laying
out of a wreath should be done upon a piece of thick paper
or pasteboard, to be used afterward as a pattern.

Figure 77, A, shows the plan, or cylinder, or the top view
of the outside of the wreath, which in this case is a quarter
circle (d, g).

The lines extending to the right from e, g, and the center
line, /, indicate the straight run of the rail joining the
wreath. Draw the pitch line K, M, of indefinite length,
found by a diagram of the tread and riser, as indicated by
K, L, M, drawn at any convenient place, with KL par-
allel to the straight rail. Drop perpendiculars from a, 6,
c, d ; mark point N at the intersection of the pitch line
KM and the perpendicular dropped from c. Through /
N, draw OP parallel with KL ; with N as the center,
draw the arcs 1,2] 3, 4 ; 5,6] from 2, 4, 6, on OP, drop
perpendiculars through the line QR (Fig. 77, B), which
give the points of the ends of the top mold ; transfer the

STAIR BUILDING

115

116 INSIDE FINISHING

distance a, e, g (Fig. 77, A) to a', el ', #', of 5. The ellipses
of the top mold, d'g' and b'e', may now be drawn by any
method ; that suggested is perhaps as convenient as any
other. Three points upon an elliptical arc are ascertained
by the following process : with a' as center, draw two
quarter circles with radii a'e' and a'g' , respectively, and
one each of radius a'b' and a'd'\ trisect the right angle
d'a'g', and from the intersection of these trisecting lines
with the four arcs, erect horizontal or perpendicular lines
as indicated. Curves drawn through the intersection of
these last described lines to d'g' and b'e' will give the de-
sired elliptical arcs.

The mold should be made of a piece of thin wood or
pasteboard, the ellipses being carefully cut to the lines.
(Any plan of sweep may be drawn in place of the quarter
circle a, d, g, of A, its pitch relation to the horizontal
plane being found by the pitch diagram K, L, M.)

The next step is to mark the plank from which the wreath
is to be made. The necessary thickness of the plank may
be found by drawing a section of the rail and a square
which will inclose it, as g'e', g"e" , Fig. 77, C ; through g'
and e" draw the lines, gh and ij upon the same pitch as
KM of A. The perpendicular distance between these,
as at y, z, will give the thickness required. To find the
length, continue e'e" of C to y ; draw the perpendicular
yz ; the distance e"z, plus the length of the top mold,
d'a', of B, equals the length of the piece. The width of
the piece equals the distance a'g' of B.

Lay the top mold on the plank from d' to g' of D, and
mark around it; this will produce the upper pair of dotted
lines d'g' and b'e'. With a bevel set at the angle of the
riser with the pitch line (KML, of A) mark the line g'x\

STAIR BUILDING 117

turn the plank the opposite side up, and place the angle
g' of the mold at x, so that b' and d' on the bottom will be
in exactly the right relation with b' and d' on the top of the
plank, and mark around the mold, which will give the
dotted lines b'e' and d'g' on the bottom.

Cut accurately both the inside and the outside of the
wreath to the dotted lines b'e', d'g', thus obtained ; do not
cut the lines indicated by g'x, and e'e', but allow the
end at e" ' , g", to extend its full length to y or beyond,
as it will allow a square end to receive the straight rail.

For the side mold, draw the indefinite horizontal line
g 6, as shown in Fig. 77, A. Space the arc dg into any
number of equal spaces, say six ; transfer these to g 6, a
distance equal to the arc dg, or g 6, by transferring the
spaces 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6. Draw the indefinite pitch line of
the arc gm from g, parallel to KM of B.

Drop vertical lines of indefinite length from 1,2,3, 4, 5, 6
of the arc dg, and where they intersect the pitch line gm,
mark the points 1', 2', 3', 4', 5', 6'. Drop indefinite ver-
tical lines from points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 of g 6, and draw a
horizontal line from 6' of the line gm to the line which was
dropped from 6, marking the intersection 6". Draw a
line from 1' to 1 on gm, and mark the intersection 1".
(This line will not exist, as the resulting curve is prac-
tically a tangent at this point.) Continue this process
from 2' to 2" ; from 3' to 3", etc.

Connect points 6", I", 2", 3", etc., with a curved line,
which will equal d'g' of D. Lay out the thickness g'g" of
the wreath parallel to line d'g'. After cutting paper or
pasteboard to these lines, lay it upon the outside of the
wreath as shown at line d'g' of Fig. 77, D. This gives the
outside top and bottom corners. Next lay out the squares

118 INSIDE FINISHING

g'g" and e'e" upon each end, and proceed to cut to the
lines thus obtained, keeping the top and bottom of the
wreath square with the sides. If this is done carefully,
the inside e'e' and e"e" of the rectangular form will be
sufficiently accurate for the purpose.

After the rectangular form of the wreath is finished,
mark the design of the rail upon each end, and with gouges
and other convenient tools, work the rail to the shape of
the one which it intersects.

The above is for a quarter turn stair, but if a circular,
or winding flight is being built, the pitch line should be
taken from the rise and run of the stairs directly under the
center of the rail, which is also the center line of the bal-
usters.

This may seem an intricate piece of work, but if it is
once studied out carefully, and a wreath worked, it will
be found to be a simple method for any one who can work
accurately. In mills where there is a bandsaw, the piece
from which the wreath is to be worked is held at the cor-
rect pitch by a jig, and the four sides of the wreath sawed.
Upon ordinary work it is rarely necessary to work out a
hand rail to special dimensions, as all that is needed may
usually be found in stock.

SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

45. What are the principal dimensions of a flight of stairs ? What
is the meaning of each of them ? When should the building be measured
for the stairs ? When should the stringers or carriages be put in place ?

46. Demonstrate the method of finding the rise of each step. The
rise of the entire flight. How may a flight of stairs be planned, if a
straight run cannot be used ? Demonstrate two methods of finding the
width of a tread. Between what points is the width of the tread?
What is the common width of a 10" tread? Within what range of

STAIR BUILDING 119

dimensions for each step may a satisfactory flight of stairs be obtained ?
Is there any difference in the number of risers and treads necessary to
build a flight of stairs ?

47. What is meant by headroom? What is the least headroom
allowable ? What is desirable ? In what way does a liberal headroom
affect the appearance of a hall ?

48. What are the timbers called which support the risers and treads ?
Demonstrate one method of laying out a common stringer. How
should the stringers for an intricate flight be laid out ? How may the
length of a stringer or carriage be found mathematically? Describe
a pitch board and its use. How may the pieces cut out of one stringer
be used economically ? How may the greatest degree of accuracy be
secured in cutting a set of stringers ? How should the outside or face
string be sawed if it is intended to serve as the face skirting board?
What is the advantage of not putting the face casing on until the house
has been plastered ? When are the rough stringers usually put in place ?
Describe three methods of making the wall stringer or carriage. Which
is to be preferred for a first class job ? Why ? What is the cheapest
way to build a flight of stairs? What are the objections to it?
Describe a buttress flight. Describe two methods of building them.
Describe other forms of stringers and carriages, and tell where they are
used. Describe two methods of fastening the stringers at the top of a
flight of stairs.

49. Describe a straight flight of stairs; its advantages and disad-
vantages. Describe a platform flight; a winding flight; a dog-leg
flight ; a box flight. Describe the method of framing the best stairs.
In what way may the winding risers for an ordinary house be framed ?

50. Demonstrate the method of laying out the squares upon a stair
post. What governs the vertical dimensions of the posts ? Describe
the location of a newel post. How does it compare with the other
posts? What should be the distance between the top of the tread
and the bottom of the turning ? Describe the platform post and its
location. Describe the winding post and its location. How far from
the face corner of the stairs should the mortises be placed? Wh}r?
From what point do the mortises radiate ? Describe the landfng post
and its location; the gallery post; the starting post.

51. Illustrate and compare the different methods of putting together
a step. What is the objection to grooving the front edge of a tread for

120 INSIDE FINISHING

a riser ? Describe different forms used in finishing the fronts and ends
of treads and risers.

52. Describe different methods of making a circular stair riser.
Which is to be preferred for a good job ?

53. Describe two methods of fastening the rail to the posts. Which
is the better way ? Describe two methods of splicing stair rails. Which
is the better method?

54. Describe two methods of fastening balusters in their places.
Which is the better way ? Describe and compare two methods of setting
the balusters in a closed string stair. What are the usual lengths of
balusters ? From what point is the height of the rail measured ?

55. Describe the method of laying out the top mold of a wreath.
Describe the method of sliding the top mold along to mark the bottom
of the wreath. Describe the method of laying out and marking the
face of a wreath.

CHAPTER VI
PAINTING, HARDWARE

56. Painting is one of the most important of the trades
with which the carpenter comes in contact, and it is the
intention of this chapter, not to teach the carpenter to
do the work of a painter, but to outline some of the facts
which he should know regarding the common use of
paint.

(A.) In mixing the priming coat, 100 Ib. of white lead
to 7 gal. of raw linseed oil and f gal. of japan drier
are the proportions commonly used upon the best work.
After this first or priming coat has been put on, all nail
holes, cracks, and other imperfections should be puttied;
if this is done before the wood is painted, the putty is
apt to fall out. For succeeding coats, 6 to 7 gal. of oil
to 100 Ib. of white lead will give good satisfaction; the
drier is usually omitted after the first or priming coat.

Raw oil should be used upon outside work, as boiled oil
does not stand so well, though a mixture of 3 parts of raw
oil and 2 parts of boiled oil works more easily and dries
faster, but is not so durable. However, it is used upon
some of the best work. In many localities, boiled linseed
oil is used entirely, but the work is not so permanent.

(B.) Ready mixed paints are used by some, but many
of them are inferior to white lead and oil, or to white

121

122 INSIDE FINISHING

lead, oxide of zinc, and oil, which are frequently specified
upon the best work.

In using mixed paints, it is the safest plan to shun all
makes which have not stood the test of time. Some ready
mixed paints are hardly worth putting on; others will
wear as well as the best white lead paint ; in fact, the best
brands of mixed paints are made of white lead, zinc, and
oil, purchased and mixed in large quantities, under the
most favorable conditions, and are generally superior to
the white lead and oil mixed by the painter, both in
spreading and wearing qualities. The price is about
the same.

It is poor economy to purchase cheap paint, as paint
costing 50 per cent more will often cover from 75 per cent
to 100 per cent more surface than the cheaper kind, and
give much better service under the same conditions.

(C.) Knots in pine and other pitchy woods should be
covered with a heavy coat of brown shellac, to prevent the
pitch from frying out.

(D.) Metal work should be covered with black varnish
or asphaltum. Before being painted with oil paint, very
rusty iron should be scraped and sandpapered to the clean
iron. Boiled oil should be used, as raw oil requires so
much time to dry that it is apt to be washed off by rain,
or to catch the dust.

Upon metal roofs, iron oxide and boiled oil are about as
satisfactory as anything which can be used, though there
are many roofing paints of more or less efficiency made
by different manufacturers.

A good roofing paint should be quick drying, of more
body than is ordinarily used, should adhere closely to the
roof without scaling, and should not blister in the sun.

PAINTING, HARDWARE 123

(E.) Do not paint a shingled roof, as the paint covers
only the exposed wood, and water which runs under the
shingles of the course above will not dry out readily, thus
causing decay and shortening the life of the roof. Shin-
gles may be dipped in a creosote stain for about 9" or 10"
from their butts before they are laid; this will act as
a preservative to the shingles and increase their service-
ableness.

(F.) Wood adjoining masonry should have a good coat
of paint ; this is not generally done except upon the best
class of work.

(G.) Wet or green wood never should be painted, as
the moisture in the wood is thereby confined and the re-
sult will be that either the paint will peel off or the wood
decay, or both.

(H.) Flat color should be used upon inside work ; this
is made by mixing white lead with turpentine and a little
varnish, together with the pigment necessary to give the
desired color. If oil is used, the paint will turn yellow
after a few months.

Instead of using a pure white paint, a little black should
be mixed with it, or otherwise the white paint will be too
glaring ; this also prevents to a great extent the dingy
appearance which a pure white has after the newness has
worn off. Flat color is less transparent than oil color,
and will, therefore, cover better, but it is not suitable for
outside work.

(I.) It is often necessary to remove old paint; this may
be done by burning with a gasoline torch, a method to be
used only by a man of skill and judgment, as a fire is easily
started while burning around places where the joints have
opened and the wood is very dry. Old paint may be

124 INSIDE FINISHING

removed quite well by using a preparation made of 2 oz.
of soft soap and 4 oz. of potash mixed in boiling water, to
which is added J Ib. of lime. Apply hot and leave it
for 24 hours ; wash it off with hot water.

Paint removers are made by paint manufacturers and
sold at such prices that it is usually better to use them
than to use any homemade mixture. They are generally
quicker and surer in their action ; some are apt to discolor
the wood, but that is not an important matter, unless the
work is to be finished in the natural wood.

(J.) In finishing woods with an open grain, as ash,
oak, etc., it is necessary that the grain should be filled.
Years ago this was done by applying several coats of
shellac and rubbing each coat down to a surface with
#00 sandpaper, or with pumice stone, but that method
is very slow. Of late years the use of a paste filler has
done away with the necessity of so much work.

There are several good makes of wood filler upon the
market which are generally of the color of light wood;
the addition of dry color will make it of almost any de-
sired shade. If manufactured filler is not easily obtained,
a fairly satisfactory substitute may be made by mixing
cornstarch or whiting with turpentine or naphtha to form
a thick paste, and by adding a little oil and japan to bind
it together. Any desired dry color may be added after
the paste has been thinned to about the consistency of
cream by the addition of turpentine, or naphtha which is
used by many for reasons of economy.

In applying the filler, it is not necessary to lay it
smoothly, for when its surface has dried so that it resists
slightly when rubbed with the finger, it should be cleaned
off with excelsior or shavings by rubbing across the grain

PAINTING, HARDWARE 125

wherever possible and by digging it out of the corners
with a properly shaped stick and finishing with a soft
cloth. Care should be used that the filler is not too dry
or it will not rub off properly ; if it is too moist, there
will be too little left in the cells of the wood to fill the
grain after the moisture has evaporated.

This filling may be applied to floors, standing finish,
furniture, etc., of any open-grained wood after the filling
has been brought to the proper shade or tint by the use of
dry color.

(K.) For finishing close-grained woods, such as cherry,
maple, birch, etc., the grain should be filled to prevent
the finish from soaking in. This filling may consist of a
coat of shellac, rubbed down, but there are substitutes in
the market which are efficient and much cheaper and,
for everything but the finest work, are perfectly satis-
factory. These surface dressings usually are not in-
tended for finish coats, as they will not stand rubbing, but
simply for a surface upon which finishing coats of shellac
or varnish are to be applied.

(L.) In finishing floors the nails should be set below
the surface, and the cracks and imperfections thoroughly
puttied ; if finished in the natural wood, the pores and cells
should be filled as above described, and the finish applied
upon the surface thus prepared.

There are many good floor finishes upon the market,
some of which are for finishing in the natural or stained
wood, and others for painting the floors.

A good floor paint or finish should be tough, elastic,
and able to resist the wear to which a floor is subjected.

(M.) Do not thin shellac with turpentine; alcohol or
wood alcohol should be used for that purpose. Shellac

126 INSIDE FINISHING

is a gum dissolved in alcohol and is used to give a
fine permanent finish to woodwork. Orange or brown
shellac should be used for dark woods, and white or refined
shellac for all light colored woods, or where it is desired
that the finish shall make as little change in the color of
the wood as possible.

Considerable skill is needed in spreading it smoothly.
It should be laid with moderately thick coats and rubbed
down to a surface with #00 sandpaper, or pulverized pum-
ice stone, after each coat. The last coat should be rubbed
down in oil, and polished with a soft cloth. Though quite
expensive, shellac makes a very satisfactory finish for a
nice floor, if not exposed to water.

(N.) Do not thin varnish with alcohol, use turpentine.
Varnishing always should be done in a room, the tempera-
ture of which is not less than 70 degrees ; the room should
be free from dust and drafts, and these conditions should
be maintained until the varnish has set.

(O.) Paint and varnish brushes should be cleaned in
benzine or turpentine ; shellac brushes in wood alcohol ;
and if they are to be laid away they should be washed in
warm soapy water, and rinsed in clean water. If paint
brushes are to be used again soon, they may be hung in a
vessel partly filled with water, so that the bristles do not
touch the bottom. Shellac or varnish brushes may be
suspended in a covered shellac or varnish pot.

57. Hardware. — The grade of hardware purchased for a
house is generally in keeping with the kind of house being
built, and is a fair index of the quality of the house through-
out. However, expensive trimmings do not always in-
dicate the true value of a house, because unscrupulous
carpenters use them often with the purpose of deceiving.

PAINTING, HARDWARE 127

(A.) Wire nails have but few points in their favor in
comparison with cut nails; however, they drive more
easily, are not so apt to split the wood, and as there are
more in a pound, the original cost is less.

For the reason that wire nails do not resist the effects
of moisture so well as do cut nails, the latter should be
used for outside finish, though upon ordinary work this
is not considered important, as the heads of the nails are
painted, and are not exposed to the moisture so much as
the nails with which shingles are fastened. If the best
results are desired in shingling a house, cut nails should
be used, especially in places near the salt water, where
wire nails will sometimes allow the shingles to blow off
a roof within three years from the time the roof was
laid.

(B.) The trimmings, or the door knobs, window fasts,
and other exposed hardware, should not be of plated ware,
as the plating soon comes off. Brass or bronze trimmings
are the best ; bronzed iron trimmings are used upon com-
mon work where economy, rather than durability, is the
object.

(C.) For locks, nothing is more secure than the time-
honored bolt ; our modern locks are simply applications
of it, improved to meet modern demands. A lock which
fastens automatically is called a spring lock, and one which
has to be fastened and unfastened is known as a dead lock.

(D.) In putting on Yale or similar locks, the workman
should follow the directions which usually accompany each
lock. It is a good plan to set them back from the edge
of the door a little, say Ty or less, to allow the door to be
jointed at some future time if necessary.

(E.) Loose-pin and loose-joint butts or hinges are shown

may be removed for jointing more easily than if the loose-
pin butt were used, and many workmen think that the
loose-joint butts may be put on more rapidly.

SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

56. What are the proportions used in mixing the priming coat of
paint? How should all nail holes and cracks be treated? At what
stage of the work should this be done? Why? What are the pro-
portions for the succeeding coats ? What kind of oil should be used for
outside work ? Why ? Compare mixed paints with a mixture of white
lead and oil. How should mixed paints generally be regarded ? What
is the best test ? Compare the economy of using the cheapest and the
expensive mixed paints. How should knots in pitchy wood be treated ?
What kind of oil should be used upon a metal roof ? With what should
metal work be painted? How should rusty metal work be treated
before painting ? What is a satisfactory roofing paint ? What charac-
teristics should a good roofing paint possess ? Should a shingled roof
be painted ? Why ? How should shingles be treated ? How should
wood adjoining masonry be treated ? Is it a good plan to paint green
or wet wood ? Why ? How should paint be prepared for inside work ?
Should a pure white paint be used? Why? How may old paint be
removed? What is the objection to burning it off? What is the ob-
jection to some paint removers? How should open-grained wood be
treated to prepare it for finishing ? What was the old method of filling
the grain ? Why is that not necessary now ? How may a wood filler
be mixed ? How should the filler be applied to the wood ? How should
it be treated afterwards? How are close-grained woods treated?
What characteristics should a good floor paint possess? With what
should shellac be thinned ? How should it be laid ? With what should
varnish be thinned ? What conditions are necessary for doing a good
job of varnishing ? Discuss the care of paint brushes.

57. What generally governs the grade of hardware purchased for a

PAINTING, HARDWARE 129

house ? Compare wire nails and cut nails. What kind of nails is best
for use upon outside finish? Why is this considered unimportant?
Why should cut nails be used to fasten shingles? What is apt to be
the result if wire nails are used for shingling in a damp climate? Is
there any objection to plated ware for the trimmings of a house ? What
kind of trimmings is best ? Is a modern lock any more secure than
a bolt? What is meant by a spring lock? A dead lock? Is it a
good plan to set a lock exactly flush with the edge of the door ? Why ?
Describe and compare the loose-joint butt and the loose-pin butt.

CHAPTER VII

ESTIMATING

58. Plans. — If work of importance is being considered,
a contractor should always insist upon having a complete
set of plans, a carefully prepared set of specifications, and
a written contract, all so drawn as to insure against the
possibility of a misunderstanding.

59. Location. - - The contractor should be familiar with
the location of the house and be thoroughly posted con-
cerning the facilities for transportation and for obtaining
material and help. He should know how far from the
excavation the earth has to be carried and should have
reliable information about the nature of the subsoil and
the possibility of ledges and springs which might cause
difficulty in making a dry cellar.

60. Method. — In writing the matter for this chapter,
the plans of a house and its accompanying stock list and
estimate have been purposely omitted, as it will be far
better that the students or teacher should select a small
accessible building, make a set of plans of it from actual
measurements, and use these as the basis from which the
estimates and the stock lists of the class should be made.
In this case, the building can be used for the purpose of
study and demonstration, thus giving the student the
benefit of comparing his work with actual results.

130

ESTIMATING 131

By the approximation method 1 of estimating, the esti-
mator works upon the basis that the use of a certain
quantity of a certain sized material will accomplish a
known result ; for instance, instead of counting the exact
number of studs necessary to stud the wall of one side of
the house, then of another, he measures the entire distance
to be covered by all of the walls and partitions, and al-
lows one stud to each foot, with an additional one for
each angle and opening. Instead of figuring that a man
can set a certain number of studs in a given tune, the
cost is found by figuring that it will cost a certain amount
to set a thousand feet (board measure) of studs.

The estimate based upon the approximation method
should be first worked out, followed by the stock bill from
which the actual work would be done if the building was
to be built. If the building which is being studied was
built by contract, and copies of the contract and of the
original stock bill could be secured, they would be of great
value in criticizing the results of the work of the class.

A contracting carpenter may follow the safe method of
getting estimates upon the different parts of the building
which must be done by other workmen, then adding his
own estimate; to this total are added the amounts for inci-
dentals and profit, the sum of which is his bid for the con-
tract. If he is awarded the contract, he treats the bid
from each sub-contractor as a maximum, and tries to find
a man who will do the work for a lower price. This method
usually results in fewer contracts, but there is less risk

xThe term " Approximation Method," as used in this book, has no
relation to the "Preliminary Approximation Method," which is based
upon the cubical contents of a building and is principally used by archi-
tects in arriving at the approximate cost of a contemplated building.

132 INSIDE FINISHING

than if the contractor depended upon his own figures
entirely. It is impracticable to give here prices of labor
and material, as they vary so that no list can be devised
which will suit all localities and times ; therefore we shall,
in most cases, discuss only the time necessary for doing
the work under average conditions, and the methods of
estimating the materials, leaving the student to obtain the
local prices. All estimates are based upon a day's labor
of nine hours.

The contractor should not try to save too much time
in estimating, but should aim at accuracy and safety, since
this is as important as it is that the work is done well and
economically.

NOTE. — In all estimates given, the student should not forget that
they are based upon the actual cost, and that, for the estimate to be
submitted, the profit is to be added to the total cost.

Whether he gets the job or not, the young contractor
should keep a systematic and permanent record of all his
estimates, the cost of material and labor, and any infor-
mation he may think valuable ; if he does the work himself,
he should check his estimates when the actual results are
known. This record will be found of great value in making
succeeding estimates. A pocket size loose-leaf binder is
a great convenience for the valuable data which is continu-
ally presenting itself.

In order to estimate successfully, there should be a
schedule containing the items to be estimated. These
should be considered one at a time to ascertain the neces-
sary dimensions and quantities, after which similar items
of the same price should be gathered together and the cost
of the total quantity estimated as one item. The totals of
these different items should be summarized, and their total

ESTIMATING 133

ascertained ; to this should be added from 5 per cent to 25
per cent for incidentals, use of equipment, etc., and the same
percentages should govern the amount to be added for
profit. The grand total should be the amount of the bid.

61. Excavations. — Under the head of excavations,
unless otherwise specified, should be included those for
the cellar, piers under the partitions, porches, cisterns,
cesspools, vaults, and trenches for the water and sanitary
system of the house.

The excavated earth should be carried far enough away
so that it will not interfere with the workmen, but if it is
to be used for filling and grading around the house, work
which is usually in the contract for the excavation, it
should be carried as little distance as possible.

For a day's work, two men should excavate from 10 to
12 cubic yards of sand, gravel, or moderately soft clay,
and carry it 60 feet in a wheelbarrow. Two men and
the driver, with a horse and cart, should pick, throw out,
and carry the same distance from 16 to 20 cubic yards of
the same sort.

Filling in and grading around the house usually costs
about a fourth as much as the excavating.

62. Stonework. — Masonry will be discussed under
two heads, stonework and brickwork. The work of build-
ing the foundations, piers, chimneys, etc., is usually a sub-
contract, and as such, the carpenter may have one or more
masons figure upon the work and make their estimates
the basis of his own, adding enough to reimburse himself
for building the scaffolds, arch centers, and other work
which the mason may require of him.

The items to be considered in estimating the mason-
work of a building are as follows:—

134 INSIDE FINISHING

Walls Settings

Area. Fireplaces.

Cesspools. Furnaces.

Cisterns. Hearths.

Foundation. Range.
Outside.

Partition. Miscellaneous

Arches.

Material Chimneys.

Broken stone. Cut stone.

Cement. Footings.

Gravel. Labor.

Lime. Piers.

Sand. Stone cutting.

Tiling for drains.

The unit of measurement for stonework varies in differ-
ent localities, cubic yard, perch, and cord being used. The
following table will be found useful in estimating quantities.

27 cu. ft. = 1 cu. yd.

128 cu. ft. = 1 cord of uncut stone.

100 cu. ft. = 1 cord of stone laid in the wall.

24f cu. ft. = 1 perch.

1 load of sand = 25 bushels.

1 bbl. lime or cement = 2 J bushels.

In estimating the stone in a wall, it is customary to
measure around the outside, thus reckoning the corners
twice and allowing for the additional work and waste neces-
sary to build them. This distance should be multiplied
by the height and by the thickness of the wall in feet, the
result being the quantity in cubic feet.

ESTIMATING 135

It is always wise for the contractor, before he sublets
the foundation walls, to have an understanding with the
mason, as usually local custom governs the measurements
of openings. In laying a rubble wall, it is the common
practice to measure all single openings as solid wall, as
the extra work will make the cost about even. Of an
opening larger than 16 sq. ft. a half usually is counted.

If the estimate is for stone in the wall, the price should
be about a fourth greater, to allow for waste and extra
work around openings.

One man and a helper should lay about 2^ cu. yd. of
rubble stone in a day, using 1 bu. of lime and 3J bu. of
sand to each cubic yard of stone. If the stone is laid
in Portland cement, it will require | bbl. of cement and
4 bu. of sand.

One man and a helper should lay If cu. yd. of ashlar
per day, or about 40 sq. ft. of 12" wall. The mortar
with which it is laid will cost from 25^ to 30^ per cu. yd.
of stone.

A stonecutter in a day should cut about 25 or 30 sq. ft.
of bluestone or granite, rock-faced, pitched, random ash-
lar, with the beds straightened 3" back from the face ;
of coursed ashlar, the amount would be about a third less.

As the ashlars and rubble are the kinds of work com-
monly used, we will not discuss the more expensive and
the less used tooled and draft methods of finishing stone.

63. Brickwork. — Under the head of bricklaying should
be considered the items mentioned in connection with the
preceding topic.

It is usual to measure a brick wall solid ; however, in
buildings where there are many openings, as in those of the
slow burning or mill construction, in which about half of

136 INSIDE FINISHING

the wall is occupied by windows, it is generally safe to de-
duct for the openings about 25 per cent of the wall area.

If estimated as above, it is not the custom to make any
allowance for pilasters, arches, or any simple detail in the
wall ; if an opening occupies over 100 sq. ft., it is generally
entirely deducted.

A square foot of brick wall contains 7\ bricks, if the
wall is two bricks thick it contains 15, and if the wall is
13" or three bricks thick it will contain 22| bricks to the
square foot of wall surface. This is called a cubic foot of
brick if estimated in the wall; if a large mass of brick
masonry is being estimated, it is the usual custom to cal-
culate that one cubic yard of brickwork will contain 575
bricks.

There is a loss by breakage and waste of 5 per cent,
which should be added to the quantity estimated as being
actually necessary in the building.

To lay 1000 bricks, it will take 3 bu. of lime and 12 bu.
of sand ; for pressed brick, it will need about \ of the above
quantities, as the joints should be only \" , while upon
ordinary acceptable work they are Ty or f ".

Under average conditions, a man should lay 1000 bricks
a day, but upon some kinds of intricate work this amount
may be reduced to 200 or less ; if face brick are being laid,
a man will lay only about a third as many as of the com-
mon brick.

64. Carpentry. — Under the head of carpentry we will
discuss only the framing of a building, and its preparation
for the outside finish, roofing, and lathing.

Some contractors make out a bill of the material as
they estimate it, giving the dimensions for each piece as
for the final list. This method has a high degree of ac-

ESTIMATING

137

curacy to recommend it, but as a piece of dimension tim-
ber must generally be cut from lengths of multiples of two
feet, it is plain that the time spent in making such an ac-
curate list is often wasted, as it is a very low estimator
who is awarded more than one in five jobs on which he
figures and for which there is much competition. The
approximation method herein described is much quicker
and the results will vary but little. (See Topic 60.)

For the purpose of subsequent checking and reference,
a record should be kept of the quantities and dimensions
included in the estimate.

The items which should be considered in connection
with the framing of a building are as follows: —

Plan Members
Floor joists.
Girders.
Headers.
Plates.
Sills.

Tail beams.
Trimmers.
Trusses.
Under floors.

Elevation Members
Braces.
Corner posts.
Posts in cellar.
Sheathing for sides.
Stair stringers.
Studs.

Roof Members
Collar and tie beams.
Common rafters.
Cripple rafters.
Curb plates.
Hip rafters.
Jack rafters.
Lookouts.
Purlins.
Ridge.
Sheeting.
Shingles.
Valley rafters.

Miscellaneous
Bridging.

Furring and strapping.
Labor.

138 INSIDE FINISHING

In estimating the quantities in the frame of a building,
it is usual to select all of the rough lumber costing about
the same, add *the different kinds together, and estimate
the aggregate at an average price.

Studs, if set 16" to centers, are counted one to each foot
in the width of the walls and the partitions, and one for
each opening and angle. This will give enough for gable
studs, scaffoldings, and for various other purposes not in-
cluded in any estimate. A more exact method is to cal-
culate the width of the partitions and walls, to subtract
a third of that amount in feet from the total, and to add
one for each angle and two for each opening. The former
method is the one in common use among builders.

In setting studding upon ordinary work, about 20 Ib.
of nails and spikes are used for each 1000 ft. Two men
should cut and set from 600 to 800 ft. of 2" X 4" or
2" X 6" studding per day.

NOTE. — In all estimates for labor, handling lumber and erecting
scaffolding are included.

Unless otherwise specified, the word " feet " used in connection with
quantities of lumber means square feet or board measure.

As the corner posts are included with the studs, if the
estimates are made as described above, do not estimate
them again, but instead order them the full height of the
corner.

Calculate the number of floor joists, common rafters,
and tie beams needed, and add one for the starter. To
find the number of jack rafters, those upon one side of each
corner should be counted, and their length estimated as
a full length common rafter, which will practically equal
the actual measurement.

For setting rafters and floor joists, about 30 Ib. of

ESTIMATING 139

spikes and nails per 1000 ft. will generally be used. Two
men will cut and place about 500 ft. of rafters in a day,
and, if the building is not too irregular, 1000 ft. to 1300 ft.
of floor joists.

If sheathing is to be laid horizontally, estimate the
actual area, making no allowance for openings or waste.
If it is laid diagonally, allow 10 per cent for waste besides
the openings. In estimating the roofing boards or sheet-
ing, allow 25 per cent for waste if the sheeting is laid
with close joints, but if there is a space of 2 inches between
the boards, and they are not more than 6" or 1" wide, an
estimate of a fourth less than the actual area will be safe.
The above two items will require about 25 Ib. of nails per
1000 ft.

For a day's work, two men should lay 1000 ft. of sheath-
ing if laid horizontally, or 800 ft. if laid diagonally; if
matched, the amount will be 20 per cent to 25 per cent
less. Two men should lay from 500 ft, to 1000 ft. of roof
sheeting per day, varying according to the number of
hips and valleys in the roof. It generally costs about $8
per M to handle and put sheeting in place.

A man should cut and nail six to eight sets of bridging
per hour.

No prices for bolts, anchors, plates, and other iron work
can be given which will be of any value, as they are gov-
erned by the state of the market, so the builder should
always have figures submitted, if any considerable amount
is to be used.

Circular towers, bay windows, etc., are usually estimated
at twice the cost of straight work. Under floors may be
laid at the rate of from 10 to 12 squares per day.

Many builders lump the above quantites, and estimate

140 INSIDE FINISHING

the cost of the labor in framing to equal half of the cost of
the material. Others estimate the framing at $10 per M,
which is in most places a fair price.

65. Roofing. — A carpenter will lay from 1500 to 2000
shingles per day, and use from 1\ to 10 Ib. of 4d nails,
but there are professional shinglers who can lay as many
as 5000. An all-round carpenter will rarely average more
than the above, and not that if the roof is very badly
cut up. Generally it will cost about $1.50 per M to lay
shingles.

A box of tin for roofing will cover about 180 sq. ft. and
require about 10 Ib. of solder, 2 Ib. of tinned roofing-nails,
and about 15 hours' work to prepare the tin for the roof
and to put it on. To this is to be added the cost of painting
the under side of the tin before laying. In dry climates
this is not often done. Painting the roof after it is laid
is often a part of the-painter's contract, though the first
painting is considered part of the original cost of the roof.

Though the price of a tin roof usually is estimated at
from $8 to $10 per square, the above data will allow the
roof to be estimated according to local conditions.

A slate roof should be estimated by one who makes that
work a business, but generally $9 per square is a safe
estimate, though the price varies between $7 and $12,
according to the nature of the roof, the quality of the ma-
terial, and the work required.

66. Joinery. — Under the head of joinery we shall treat
the building after the carpenter has finished the framing,
covering, and roofing, and discuss the topics of inside and
outside finishing.

The items to be considered under the above head are
as follows : —

ESTIMATING

141

Outside Finish
Base or water table.
Corner boards.
Cornice.
Moldings.
Siding.

Windows
Blinds.
Frames.
Glazing.
Sash.

Doors
Doors.
Frames.

Inside Finish
Architraves.
Baseboard.
Corner blocks.
Flooring.
Moldings.
Plinths.
Wainscoting.

Stairs
Balusters.
Handrail.
Newel posts.
Rail bolts.
Risers.

Section posts.
Skirting boards.
Stringers or carriages.
Treads.

Veranda
Balusters.
Brackets.
Capitals.
Floor.
Posts.
Rail.

Miscellaneous
Grounds.
Labor.

Sheathing paper.
Shelving.
Shingles.

Window frames may be bought at prices which range
between SI and as high as a specially designed and very
elaborate frame may cost ; but a good frame, and such as
is in common use, may be bought for from SI. 25 to SI. 75.
Usually they arrive from the factory in shocks, or knocked
down, so about H hours should be allowed for nailing up
and setting each frame. In this, as in all work, add 5 per
cent for each story in height for the cost of handling.

142 INSIDE FINISHING

Doorframes cost the price of the stock which is usually
bought all rabbeted ; smoothing, nailing up, squaring, and
setting an inside frame will usually require about If or 2
hours. A common outside frame, with its casing and
threshold, will require about another hour.

Two good men should build their scaffolds and put in
place from 160 to 180 ft. of cornice per day, unless there
are a great many angles. This includes all the work from
the siding to the upper edge of the gutter bed, or to the
place where the roof proper begins, and will require about
4£ Ib. of nails for 100 ft.

Another method is to figure the width of the cornice
in inches, and allow \r per inch in width to each foot in
length in the length of the cornice; this will pay for all
the material and labor of scaffolding.

In estimating corner boards and siding, the actual wall
area is taken, and no allowance made for single openings,
thus balancing the waste upon ordinary houses. To this
should be added a fourth for the lap of 6" siding. If some
form of matched siding is used, a third of the area should
be added, as 4" siding will usually cover about 3J" upon
the wall, and narrow boards cut to waste more than wide
ones. When the above method is used, there is no need of
estimating the corner boards separately.

Two men should lay from 500 ft. to 700 ft. of siding,
and use from 9 to 12 Ib. of nails for a day's work.

Many contractors consider the cost of the labor of
putting on outside finish as half of the cost of the
material.

In estimating the material for flooring, add a fourth
to the area for waste, not measuring stairs or other large
openings. A room which is badly cut up by angles and

ESTIMATING 143

curves generally should be estimated to its extreme dimen-
sions, to recompense for the extra labor of cutting.

If a square-edged floor is to be laid, a fifth is sufficient
allowance for waste.

From 2 to 3 Ib. of nails per square are necessary to lay
matched flooring.

A man should lay from 3 to 4 squares per day of matched
softwood flooring of good material, blind nailed ; if less
than 4" wide, he should lay from 2 to 3 squares per day.

Of hardwood flooring, a man will lay from a fourth to
a third less than the above quantities, and of a square-
edged floor a man should lay from 6 to 8 squares per day.

Ceiling wainscoting, finished with cap and scotia, can
be nailed and finished at the rate of from 2 to 2^ squares
per day upon ordinary straight work, using 2 Ib. of 6d
finish nails per square.

Panel work or dado may be set up (not made) and fin-
ished at the rate of about 1J squares per day, with an
average amount of detail in the base and cap. No price
can be given for the cost of paneled dado, as it can be made
for almost any amount ; the builder should obtain a figure
from a factory before submitting an estimate.

It is usually safe to estimate a third more for the labor
upon hardwood than upon softwood work.

A man should smooth, fit, and nail in place from 50
to 60 linear feet of three-member base per day, including
mitering the outside and coping the inside angles, unless
there are a great many.

It is a fair day's work to fit, hang, and mortise lock five
inside doors ; if rim locks are used instead, seven doors
require about the same amount of work to fit the lock so
that the door does not rattle.

144 INSIDE FINISHING

It is about one hour's work to case around a door or
window frame with a corner block and plinth casing ; a
mitered finish will require usually about one half more
time. It is a common method to lump the mill work of a
house and estimate the cost of the labor of putting it in
place to equal one third or one half of its cost, according
to the work required.

To fit, hang, trim, and put the stops on five windows,
will constitute a fair day's work. Many contractors figure
the windows as finished complete, with blinds and paint-
ing, at $10 per opening, which is safe for an ordinary
house.

Doors may be estimated by figuring the cost of the
material and adding 1J day's work for an inside door,
and If day's work for an outside door, if the latter is
set with a hardwood sill and a thorough job is to be
done. An inside door will require a good day's work to
complete it, from making the frame to cutting down the
threshold.

In the pantry, and other places which require shelv-
ing, a man should put in place from 60 to 75 ft. per
day.

The cost of stairs varies greatly with the design, but it
is usually safe to estimate that it will require one day's
work to two and a half risers in height, if they are not
too intricate in their design.

Box stairs usually require about one day's work to six
risers in height.

A man should lay in place between 300 and 400 linear
feet of grounds per day, straightening them up in good
shape.

Mantels and other special woodwork are furnished some-

ESTIMATING 145

times by the carpenter. The owner often selects them
himself, but the contractor pays for them, the owner
paying any extra cost above the price allowed in the con-
tract, which may be necessary to secure a special design
to which he takes a fancy.

67. Plastering. - - The material and labor required for
100 sq. yd. of three-coat work are as follows : -

1500 laths. 18 hours' work for two plas-
10 Ib. 3d fine nails. terers and one helper.

7 hours' work in making up 36 bu. sand.

mortar. 8 Ib. or 1 bu. of hair.

1 day's labor lathing. \ bu. plaster of Paris.
12 bu. lime.

The custom of measuring for plastering varies, though
the square yard is generally the unit. It is quite usual
not to deduct single openings, and to measure only half
of the double openings, treating the rest as solid wall.
All strips less than 12" should be measured as 12" ; for
small closets add a half to the actual measurements. A
man will lay about 1500 laths a day. Two plasterers and
one helper will, upon ordinary work, build their stagings
and do about 50 yd. per day of three-coat work. Roughly
speaking, the plastering costs about 10 per cent of the
entire cost of the house. Lathing and plastering vary in
price according to locality from 20^ to 25^ for two-coat
work, to 25^ to 30^ per square yard for three-coat
work. In certain sections of the country, two-coat work
is used exclusively.

68. Hardware. - - The following is a list of the articles
of hardware needed upon a house : —

146 INSIDE FINISHING

Doors Windows

Bolts. Blind trimmings.

Butts. Sash cord.

Cupboard catches. Sash fasts.

Hinges. Sash lifts.

Mortise locks. Sash weights.

Rim locks. Special glass.

Stops. Transom lifts.

Transom locks.

Miscellaneous

Anchors. Ornamental iron work.

Bolts. Plates.

Drawer pulls. Rail bolts.

Hooks and eyes. Rods.

Nails, spikes, screws, etc. Washers.

Upon ordinary work, the hardware will cost from 3 per
cent to 5 per cent of the cost of the house, and 20 per cent
of their cost will pay for putting on the trimmings.

69. Painting. - - The following figures are about the
average for the whole country, but the builder should be
sure that they are safe for his locality, before he uses them
as the basis of an estimate.

One gallon of paint will cover 200 sq. ft. of new wood,
two coats, and 300 sq. ft. of metal roof, one coat.

It is usually safe to estimate that the labor of putting
on paint will cost about 1| times the cost of the paint upon
plain work; and upon difficult work, or work in two or more
colors, twice the cost of the paint should be allowed for the
labor. The labor for varnished work should be estimated
as costing about 1| times the material.

ESTIMATING 147

Interior work will cost about 20^ per sq. yd. for two-
coat, and 25^ for three-coat work. A plastered wall sized
and covered with three coats of paint will cost about
20-0 per sq. yd. ; stippled, about 30^. Hardwood finishing
will cost about 40^ per sq. yd. for filling and two coats of
varnish.

Painting generally will cost from 12 to 16 per cent of the
cost of the house, but upon rough buildings and cheap work
it is sometimes reduced to 6 or 8 per cent.

It costs 25^ per double roll to hang common wall paper.

In measuring for areas of painting, make no allowance
for openings, as the difference in the work, the under edges
of the siding, curves of moldings, etc., will make the meas-
urement just.

A painter can legally claim the privilege of measuring
the height of a building by a tape measure, carefully fit-
ting it into all the angles and curves of the siding, water-
table, and moldings of the cornice, as all of these surfaces
have to be covered with paint.

70. Heating and plumbing. — We will not go into the
detail of heating and plumbing, as in every case there are
so many different methods of accomplishing results that
any data which could be furnished here would be of little
value. So we will simply state that a hot-air system will
cost from 5 per cent to 8 per cent of the cost of the house,
steam heat from 6 per cent to 10 per cent, hot water from
8 per cent to 12 per cent, plumbing about the same, and
if the house is to be piped for gas, from 2 per cent to 4 per
cent will pay for the piping without the fixtures.

71. Summarizing the estimates. — After the quantities
and dimensions of the different sizes, kinds, and grades of
material have been calculated and their totals ascertained,

148 INSIDE FINISHING

the information should be filed away. This unpriced list
should be sufficiently accurate, in regard to the quantities
and dimensions, to be used in ordering much of the bill
stuff, and of the cheaper lumber and other materials which
can be ordered by quantity, and be cut afterward. If the
figuring has been too close, there may not be enough of
the rough material for use as temporary bracing, scaffold-
ing, etc.

The totals of the above quantities and sizes should be
arranged by the methods indicated in the following out-
line^ which mentions only enough of the items to suggest
the method to be followed ; the prices should be carried
out, and added to ascertain the total cost of the material.

To this should be added from 5 per cent to 25 per cent
each for incidentals and profit. This should be enough, in
the judgment of the contractor, to provide a safe margin
for all reasonable contingencies, and at the same time to
allow him a fair chance of being awarded the contract.

TIMBER

4654 ft. dimension lumber for bill stuff, at $20 per M . . $93.08

3000 ft. hemlock sheathing 16' and 18' long, at $18 per M .1 gl Q0
1500 ft. hemlock sheathing for roof, at $18 per M . . . . J

12,000 best cedar shingles at $4 per M 48.00

600 ft. maple flooring, 4" matched, at $40 per M . . . . 24.00

Total

MILL WORK

4 cellar frames at $1.25 $5.00

3 window frames 14" x 30", 4 It. at $1.75 5.25

11 sets of door jambs at 60^ 6.60

3 porch columns 8" X 8', turned, at $3.50 ...... 10.50

Total .

ESTIMATING 149

CARPENTER WORK

4654 ft. framing lumber at $10 per M $46.54

4500 ft. sheathing at $8 per M . . . , 36.00

12,000 shingles at $1.50 per M 18.00

90 ft. of cornice at 150 per linear foot 13.50

One third cost of mill work for finishing 42.90

Stairs . 18.00

Total

SUMMARY

Excavating and masonry 230.00

Dimension lumber 315.64

Mill work 1-28.60

Carpenter work 235.67

Hardware 31.90

Tin work 13.60

Plastering. 450 yards at 25^ 112.50

Plumbing . 190.00

Painting 49.60

Total $1307.51

Incidentals, use of equipment, etc., 8 per cent 104.60

Profit, 10 per cent 130.75

Grand total $1542.86

72. Stock bill. — After the estimating has been finished,
the student should make out the stock list, which should
include in detail the quantities and sizes of every item to
be used in the construction of the building, which is not
included with sufficient accuracy in the approximation list.

In making this bill, the student should follow closely
the instructions and lists of items as included in Topics 61
to 69. Each item should be carefully considered and
checked to insure that none are missed or figured twice.
Each item to be listed should be specified and estimated
generally to the nearest stock dimensions, when framing

150 INSIDE FINISHING

material and other supplies, which will have to be cut
to exact dimensions upon the work, are being considered.
The following bill should be ample to suggest the method
generally followed in making out the stock list for a build-
ing ; it includes only items which the carpenter uses, since
the masonwork, painting, etc., are usually sublet, the sub-
contractors making out their own stock lists. The list
is only suggestive, and is not to be followed in selecting
items, as it is intentionally incomplete, it being assumed
that the student will work in accord with the suggestions
previously made.

JOHN DOE & SONS

CONTRACTORS AND BUILDERS

CHICAGO, ILL.

DATE, /*,«,. /,
BILL OF MATERIAL FOR

FOR jlohn cfmitfi, €&q.f

MR. RL&fwvid, Ro-&f

Jb-&a,l&i/ Ln ffiuLtcl&iQf

&&OA> c/i^l//

dt tn^&
ztia,iM£< tfie/m^ to- ou\.

At tlM/llf

ESTIMATING 151

FRAMING

6 2" X 6" X 12' sills.
14 2" X 6" X 14' sills.

9 2" X 8" X 16' girders.
24 2" X 8" X 12' floor joists.
68 2" X 4?' X 14' studs, plates, etc.

FINISH

9 window frames, 14" X 30" X If" 4 It.
17 window frames, 14" X 28" X If" 4 It.

9 door frames, 2' 8" x 6' 8" X If". If" X J" rabbet.
90 ft. 4" crown molding.
90 ft. 3i" X |" facia.
2000 ft. 4£" matched siding.

9 #2 doors, 2' 8" X 6' 8" X If".

HARDWARE
100 Ib. 8d com. nails.
100 Ib. 20d spikes.
50 Ib. 8d finish nails.
6 mortise locks.
36 6-lb. sash weights.

Never use ditto marks (") to repeat figures, as they
very often cause errors. Stock bills should always be
made out in duplicate, by means of carbon paper, one copy
to go to the dealer, and one to be retained by the builder,
as one may be lost, and mistakes may be checked.

73. The contractor. — Whenever unsuccessful, the
young contractor should endeavor to discover, if possible,
in what way his successful competitor was able to do
the work more cheaply than he could. Did the success-
ful competitor's figures differ in regard to material or
labor? Was the material used the same that he would
have furnished ? If the builder who is doing the work is

152 INSIDE FINISHING

a successful man, a young contractor may learn much in
regard to the faults of his own estimate.

A feeling of antagonism exists among a certain class of
builders toward an architect, and many do not hesitate
to cause him all the annoyance possible. This is a very
shortsighted policy, as an architect's advice to his client
is usually of great weight, and the contract is not always
awarded to the lowest bidder. If an architect has had
unsatisfactory dealings with a builder, he will, like most
people, avoid him as much as possible in the future.

Architects, as a rule, are suspicious of builders, and
naturally so, as the antagonistic builder is found every-
where, and until confidence is established, the architect is
apt to be very searching and particular in his examinations
and requirements. The more friends among the archi-
tects a builder can gain by his honesty and ability, and
the more he can inspire their confidence, the better work,
the more work, and the better prices he can command.

The young contractor should be very careful in regard
to the legal aspects of a contract, as there are many ways
in which an unscrupulous man might take advantage of
technicalities, and the young builder should make a study
of forms of contracts and the conditions which govern
them, and which they govern.

Blank contracts covering all of the conditions usually
observed in a building contract may be secured from a
stationer who deals in legal forms.

Every city of importance has building regulations suited
to its own local conditions, and these should be carefully
followed, or much expense and annoyance may be caused.

A building permit is usually required in most cities, and
it is generally the builder's place to secure it.

ESTIMATING 153

A treatment of the legal aspects of the work of a contrac-
tor is not within the province of this book, therefore men-
tion only is made of its importance.

SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES

58. What should the contractor always insist on having when esti-
mating a house?

59. What should the contractor know of the location of the house
and the subsoil ?

60. Describe the approximation method of estimating. Describe
a safe method of estimating. Are the prices of labor and material the
same in all localities ? What should the contractor endeavor to attain
in estimating the cost of a building ? What is necessary in order to
estimate methodically ? How are the different items treated ? How is
the total of each division of items treated to find the cost ? What is
the range of percentages added, and for what ?

61. What is included in the estimate of the excavation of a building ?
What conditions govern the distance to which the excavated earth is
to be carried ? What is a day's work for two men excavating with a
wheelbarrow ? With a horse, cart, and driver ? What is the propor-
tion of the cost of filling and grading to the cost of the excavation ?

62. What is the safest way for a carpenter to find the cost of the
masonwork of a building? How should these estimates be made a
part of the bid for an entire job ? Name at least twelve items which
should be considered in estimating masonry. What is generally the
unit of measurement for stonework? Recite the table of quantities.
How is a wall usually measured to estimate the quantity of stone in it ?
What is the usual rule in regard to the measurement of small openings ?
Of large openings ? What is the proportion of stone in a wall to rough
stone ? What is a day's work for a man and a helper in laying rubble ?
Ashlar ? How much lime and sand should be used for each ? What is
a day's work for a stonecutter upon granite or bluestone ?

63. How is a brick wall usually measured ? What is the method of
measuring a brick wall for the slow burning type of building? How
many bricks are there in a square foot of wall surface ? In a two-brick
wall ? In a three-brick wall ? How many bricks are there in a cubic
yard of solid brickwork? What is the allowance for breakage and

154 INSIDE FINISHING

waste ? How much lime is used to lay 1000 common bricks ? 1000 face
bricks? What is a fair day's work for a bricklayer upon ordinary
work ? Upon face brick ? Make a stock bill of the masonry work of
a small house with the estimate, working from a plan.

64. Mention twenty-five items to be considered in estimating the
frame of a house. What is the common method of finding the number
of studs needed ? Is this accurate ? Why is it most used ? Explain
a more exact method, and compare the two. How many nails should
be used in setting 1000' of studding? What is a fair day's work for
two men in studding a house ? How are the corner posts usually esti-
mated? How are they ordered? How is the number of floor joists,
rafters, etc., found ? How is the number of jack rafters found ? How
many nails will be used in setting 1000' of the above ? What is a fair
day's work in setting the above?

How can sheathing be estimated if laid horizontally ? Diagonally ?
How can the sheeting for the roof be estimated ? If laid with 2" open
joints ? How many nails are used for these items per 1000' ? What is
a day's work upon each of the above ? How many sets of bridging
should a man make in an hour ? Why cannot prices for iron work be
given ? Make a stock bill for the framing material for a small house,
with the estimate, using a plan.

65. What is a fair day's work in shingling? Estimate the cost of
a square of shingles laid. Estimate the cost of a square of tin roofing
laid. What is an average price for slate roofing ?

66. Name thirty items which should be considered in estimating
joiner work. What is the approximate price of common window frames ?
How much does it cost to nail them together ?

How much does it cost to set an ordinary frame ? How does the cost
of handling material differ with the stories of the house ? How long
will it take to smooth and set up a doorframe ? How much cornice
should two men put up in a day? Describe two methods of esti-
mating cornice. How shall corner boards and siding be estimated?
How much siding should two men lay in a day ? How do some men
estimate the cost of the labor upon framing and outside finish ? How
is flooring estimated ? How many nails are used to a square of flooring ?
What is a fair day's work in laying pine matched flooring ? Maple ?
What is the general proportion of cost between hardwood and softwood
finish ? How much square-edged flooring should a man lay in a day ?

ESTIMATING 155

How much ceiling wainscoting should be completed in a day ? What
is a fair day's work in hanging and finishing doors ? How long will it
take to case around a door upon both sides? How many windows
should a man finish in a day ? How much three-member base should
be put in place in a day ? Describe a method of estimating a window
in a lump sum. How long will it take to finish a door complete ? How
much shelving should be put in place in a day ? What is a day's wrork
in putting in a flight of stairs ? What will the labor cost upon a flight
of stairs of 16 treads? What will the labor upon a 12-rise box stair-
case cost ? How many grounds should a man put in place in a day ?
Make the stock bill of finish for a small house, and estimate, working
from a plan.

67. What material is necessary for 100 sq. yd. of plaster ? Describe
the rules for measuring plastering. How many laths should a man lay
in a day ? What is a day's work for two plasterers and a helper ? What
is the proportion of the cost of the plastering to that of the entire house ?
Make a stock bill for a small house with estimate, working from a plan.

68. Name ten items to be considered in estimating the hardware
for a house. What per cent of the cost of a house is the cost of the hard-
ware ? Make a hardware bill for a small house with the estimate.

69. How much new wood will one gallon of paint cover? How
much metal roof will it cover ? What is the proportion between the cost
of labor and the cost of paint ? Between the cost of labor and the cost
of varnish ? How should the exterior of a house be measured ? What
is the approximate cost of interior work ? What is the proportion be-
tween the cost of the painting and the cost of the whole house ? What
does it cost to lay paper?

70. What would be an approximate percentage of the cost of a hot-air
furnace for the small house above estimated ? Steam ? Hot water ?
Plumbing? Gas piping? What should be considered in adding the
profit ?

71. Make a summary of all the estimates.

72. Make the stock bill of a small house with estimate.

73. What is a good plan for a young contractor to follow in estimat-
ing ? Describe the relations between the architect and builder, as they
sometimes exist. What is the reason for an architect's distrust of a
certain class of builders ? Why are such builders unwise ?

CHAPTER VIII

ARITHMETIC

1. If it is estimated that 100 ft. of lumber are necessary to do a
certain piece of work, and but 78 ft. are used, what per cent is saved ?

2. If the hardware upon a $1000 job cost $18, what per cent of
the whole was the cost of the hardware ?

3. If the labor and material cost $14.50, what will be the price if a
profit of 8 per cent is charged ?

4. What is the ratio of profit if a tool chest costs $6 and sells for $9 ?

5. If 45 ft. of lumber cost $.90, what will 150 ft. cost ?

6. What per cent of profit is there in a job for which $46.75 was
paid, if the material costs $32 and the labor, $10.50 ?

7. If 200 ft. of lumber cost $5 how much will 37 ft. cost?

8. If 30 ft. of lumber are estimated for a job, and only 27 ft. are
used, what per cent is saved?

9. Measure the material in some article of furniture and estimate
the quantity and price.

10. A lumber pile contains 1918 sq. ft., 575 sq. ft., are sold, what
per cent is left ?

11. What is the ratio of loss if an article costs $5 and sells for $3 ?

12. Estimate the number of bricks in a given wall or section of wall.

13. If ^ of a piece of property is worth $153, what is f of it worth ?

14. If 10 men do a piece of work in 12 hours, how long should it
take 13 men to do it provided they could all work to advantage ?

15. 150 ft. is the estimate for the stock of a job, but through care-
less cutting 165 ft. are used. What is the per cent of loss?

16. If A's pay is 12^ per hour, and B receives 60 per cent as much,
what is B's pay ?

17. If they are put upon a job together and B does 50 per cent of
the work, what per cent should B's pay be raised, and A's reduced, to
make them even ?

156

ARITHMETIC 157

18. If a mason and helper can lay 1000 bricks a day, how long will
it take them to lay a wall 40' long X 18' high, and 20" thick, of low
grade brick? As the bricks are over size, estimate 21 bricks to a
cubic foot instead of 22£ as usual.

19. If 15 Ib. of nails cost $.45, what will 40 Ib. cost?

20. If 2000 ft. of lumber cost $70, how much will 3500 ft. cost ?

21. If A does a certain piece of work in 19 hours at 8£ per hour,
how much will it cost if B receives 10^ per hour and does it in f of the
time?

22. If 17 per cent of a piece of work costs $22, what will the whole
work cost when completed ?

23. Measure and estimate the material in a given length of fencing.

24. If 16f per cent of a piece of work costs $7, what will the rest
cost at the same rate ?

25. What is the per cent of labor upon a job which costs $46.17, if
the material costs $27 ?

26. Measure and estimate the material in the treads and risers of a
given flight of stairs.

27. If A does 6 hours' work for 60 cf, and B does the same amount
of work in 5 hours, how much per hour ought B to receive for his labor ?

28. Two men lay a floor containing 22 squares. A lays 8 ft. to
B's 10 ft. How much does each lay ?

29. A, 5, and C contract to do a certain piece of work for $27. A
does 6H per cent of the work, B 27 f per cent, C llf per cent. What
amount of mone\r will each receive ?

30. If 12| per cent of a piece of work costs $5.25, what will the
entire work cost?

31. If 2 students do 10 per cent of a piece of work in 3 hours,
how many will be necessary to do the whole in 10 hours if all work to
advantage ?

32. If 6000 ft. of lumber cost $180, how much may be bought for
$967?

33. If 6 men are 9 days doing a piece of work, how long will it take

4 men to do it ?

34. 'Divide 90 ft. of lumber into two parts having the ratio of 4 to

5 to each other.

35. Divide 246 into four* parts which will have the proportions of
4, 6, 9, 13.

158 INSIDE FINISHING

36. Measure and estimate the material in a given floor.

37. If a certain piece of work costs $20 the first time it is done, and
the next time it costs $18.75, what per cent is saved ?

38. The average work of A costs f less than the average work of B.
What per cent of difference should there be in their pay ?

39. Two contractors figure $3150 and $3064.50 upon a job. What
per cent of the larger bid was the difference in their bids ?

40. Measure and estimate the material in a given case of drawers.

41. If two men can lay 6 squares of floor a day, what area of floor
could thirteen lay in the same time?

42. 96 hours' work was divided equally between A, B, C, D, at 12^,
10^, Si, §i an hour respectively. How much did each receive?

43. A cellar wall 8' high, 20' X 35', and 12" thick is to be laid of
stone costing in the wall $4.50 per cu. yd. What will the wall cost ?

44. A is paid 10^ per hour for work, and his work is no better
than that of B, who receives 8£ per hour. What per cent should A's
pay be reduced ?

45. Measure and estimate the cost of material in a given piece of
furniture, and make a stock list including every piece used.

46. A certain room is 20' X 30', and another room is to be made
which is to be 20 per cent larger each way ; what will be the area of
the larger room ?

47. At the rate of 12^ for each 1| hours' work, how many hours'
work will $4.30 pay for ?

48. If a floor is 20' wide, and If times as long, what is its area ?

49. If 60 per cent of a job costs $10, what will the whole job cost?

50. If 70 per cent of a job is material, what is the cost of a job, the
labor of which costs $22?

51. If a piece of work costs 7 per cent less than the contractor's
estimate, which was $1900, how much was his additional profit ?

52. A generally requires 10^ hours to do a piece of work which B
can do in 9 hours. With A's work as a basis, what should be the per
cent of difference in their pay ?

53. A shingle roof contains 88 squares, and must be done in two
days ; how many men laying 2 squares per day each will have to be
hired?

54. What per cent of the cost of a job is the labor, if the material
costs 61 per cent, and 10 per cent is allowed for profit ?

ARITHMETIC 159

55. In a heavy building, of mill construction, the bays are 8' to
centers, timbers 12" X 14" X 20' long, and pieces of 6" X 8" are built
into the walls to receive the ends of the flooring. The floor is to be
38' X 80', 4|" thick, with floor openings aggregating 245 sq. ft. in
area. Estimate the quantity of lumber necessary to construct the
above floor, making no allowance for waste.

NOTE. — In the form of construction known as mill construction, the
posts are placed from 7' to 9' apart, and support the floor timbers, which
in turn support the heavy floor. The distances between the posts
are called bays.

56. Make a stock list of the treads, risers, balusters, rails, and
posts of a given flight of stairs.

57. Measure, make a stock list, and estimate the cost of the ma-
terial of a given door.

58. A lumber dealer sells 100 ft. or 6 per cent of a lumber pile to
one customer, 8 per cent to another, and the balance to a third at
$22 per M. What does he receive from the last customer ?

59. A and B start upon two jobs just alike. A receives 10^ per
hour and B, 80 per cent as much as A ; if A does his work in 9 hours,
how long ought B to spend upon his ?

60. If A and B do their work in the same time, what per cent of
A's pay should be withheld to make the cost of the two jobs the same ?

61. If 12 men can build 180 ft. of fence in two days, how long will
it take 18 men to build 500 ft. ?

62. If a pile of lumber is worth $168 at 4^ per ft., and if a part
worth $23.52 is lost by fire, what per cent of the whole is left ?

63. If it cost $5 per square to lay a floor complete, how much will
it cost to lay a floor 49' long, 30' wide at one end and T93 as wide at
the other?

64. A room is 24' X 36', of which 13 per cent is to be occupied by a
closet ; what will be the remaining area ?

65. If 26 per cent of the labor, the total cost of which was $40, is
furnished by A, and the rest by five others, what should each receive?

66. At $6.50 per M, how much will the brick in a given chimney
cost?

67. A workman estimates his time at 25^ per hour and bids $250
upon a contract. He receives the contract, which he fulfills in 883

160 INSIDE FINISHING

hours. What per cent of his estimate has he made or lost by the
transaction ?

68. If a job costs $6, of which $2.25 is for material, what is the per
cent of the cost of the material to the cost of the whole ?

69. What are the total contents of two planks, if one contains 19
sq. ft., and the other 86 per cent of it?

70. If 60 ft. of lumber are cut for a certain piece of work, and but
42 ft. are used, what is the per cent of waste ?

71. A and B could each accomplish about the same amount of
work, but A was paid 30^ and B 25 £, per hour. They were sent to
do a piece of work together, which required 20 hours of each, man. A
cuts the material which he uses with practically no waste, while B,
through carelessness, wastes 21 £ sq. ft. costing $60 per M. Which
is the less expensive man and by how much ?

72. 1000 ft. of lumber weighing 3000 Ib. was in the dryhouse 3
days, at the end of which time it had decreased 8 oz. per foot. What
per cent of the original weight of the lumber had evaporated?

73. At the end of one week the lumber had thoroughly dried and
its weight had decreased 40 per cent. What was its final weight ?

74. If 1 cu. ft. of water weighs 62.42 Ib., what would be the capacity
of a tank to hold the water evaporated from the above lumber ?

75. If a man pays $5 for tools, and earns $13.50 by his labor*, what
per cent has he made upon the money invested ?

76. A building is 65 ft. span in the clear. The lower chord of the
truss is 10' X 14'. Allowing the chord to rest 15 in. upon each side,
how many sq. ft. are there in the timber ?

77. Measure and estimate the cost of the floor joists which support
a given floor.

78. Counting four courses to the foot, how many bricks will it
take to build a three-flue chimney 42' high, flues to be one brick each
way?

79. A cistern has 60 bricks to a course and four courses to a foot.
What is the height to the arch if 2880 bricks are used ?

80. If it takes 21 bricks to lay a cubic foot, how many bricks are
there in a wall 60' X 9' X 16" thick?

81. A young man spends $200 for his course in a trade school, and
earns 75 per cent of it working for the school. How much does he
have to obtain elsewhere ?

ARITHMETIC 161

82. After graduation the above young man earns $50 per month
for one year as a carpenter, and saves 50 per cent of it. What per
cent of his entire earnings for the three years was left after his school
debt had been paid out of his savings ?

83. If the area of a certain wall is 88 sq. ft., and 33| per cent of it
is glass, what is the area of the glass ?

84. If a floor is 19' wide, and 40 per cent as wide as it is long, what
is its length ?

85. If 9 per cent of the above floor is cut out for a stairway, what
is the area of the rest of the floor?

86. Estimate the cost of the hardware upon three given doors.

87. If B does a certain piece of work hi 27 hours, and A does the
same work in 11 per cent less time, how long does it take A to do it ?

88. What per cent of the cost of a house is the painting, if the
total cost of the house is $1500 and the painting $55?

89. What is the percentage of gain if lumber, bought for $16 per M,
is handled and worked at a cost of $10 per M, and sold for $29.02 per M ?

90. Three boards measure 50 ft. One is 20| per cent of the whole,
another is 35 per cent. What is the percentage of the other ?

91. A student earns $35 per term, of which he spends $25. What
per cent does he save?

92. A student borrows $25, giving a note for 1 year at 6 per cent
interest, payable at maturity. What will be the value of the note
when it falls due ?

93. A barn costs $300, the stock inside $500. If the barn burns
and is a total loss, and 82 per cent of the stock is saved, what is the
total loss ?

94. If a circular saw does the work of 65 men, what per cent is.
gained if it takes one man to run it ?

95. If the 65 men are paid $1 per day each, and the cost for
power, maintenance, and one man's time is $6 per day, what is the
actual per cent of profit from a circular saw ?

96. What per cent of the cost of A's work is the difference in the
cost of two equal jobs, if A does one for $6.40, and B the other for
$6.85?

97. If 12^ per cent of the area of a room is occupied by a closet
which covers 17^ sq. ft. of space, what is the area of the room ?

98. If the above room is i as long as it is wide, what is its size ?

162 INSIDE FINISHING

99. What is the area of a board, if another, 85 per cent as large,
contains 17 sq. ft. ?

100. A house costing $900 is built upon a lot of land which cost
$150. The property is insured for f of the cost of the house, which
burns, and is a total loss. What is the actual loss to the owner, after
the insurance has been paid ?

101. Measure, make the stock list, and estimate the cost of the
stock in a given case of drawers.

102. A saw cuts 6000 feet of lumber in a day, which is sold for $12.50
per M. If it costs 70 per cent of the selling price for stumpage, haul-
ing, sawing, and handling, what is the profit upon the day's work?

103. If 50 men are paid $2 per day each, and it costs $220 for the
material they use, what must be received for the work to give a profit
of 8 per cent ?

104. Two jobs cost respectively $12.80 and $13.90. The difference
is what per cent of the more expensive job ?

105. If 12 1 per cent of the area of a room is occupied by a closet
which covers 18 sq. ft. of floor space, what is the area of the room ?

106. What is the size of the above room if it is 14' upon one side ?

107. If the above room is 8' llf" high, how many cubic feet of air
will it contain?

108. Estimating 575 bricks to a cubic yard, how many bricks are
there in a pile 3' X 5' 4" X 15' 4£" ?

109. If a granite capstone 10" thick will safely support a load of
700 Ib. per sq. in., what should be the area to carry a load of 152,000
Ib. ? Give the answer in sq. ft.

110. If a limestone foundation is to support 395,000 Ib., and the
stone will safely carry 250 Ib. per sq. in., what will be the required
area?

111. If compact gravel and sand will carry a load of 7 tons per sq. ft.,
how large an area will have to be covered to carry a load of 360,600 Ib. ?

112. If clay will safely support a load of 2 tons per sq. ft., how
heavy a load will a footing 7' X 7' support ?

113. If a Portland cement foundation made of 1 part of cement,
2 of sand, and 5 of broken stone will support 150 Ib. per sq. ft., what
will be the necessary area to carry safely 98,000 Ib. ?

114. If painting costs 1Q£ per sq. yd., how much will it cost to paint
16 squares ?

ARITHMETIC 163

115. A house is built at a cost of $860 and lies idle for one year.
It is then sold for $900.51, which includes cost of transfer. With
interest at 6 per cent, what per cent is lost ?

116. A workman made a tool chest, the material for which cost
$1.75; he sold it for $8. What per cent of the selling price repre-
sented his labor ?

117. A table which cost $1.50 to make, sold for $1.35. What was
the per cent of loss ?

118. Measure, make the stock list of a given fence, and estimate
the cost of the material.

119. Measure and make the stock list of a given veranda floor and
its supports.

120. A panel door has 2125 sq. in. of surface, 1241 of which are
occupied by panels. What per cent of the entire surface do the panels
occupy ?

121. Select a small shed or outhouse, and make the stock list of all
the material used in its construction.

122. What pay should be given to A, who does £ as much work as
B, who earns 8^ per hour?

123. If 571.32 ft. is 23 per cent of the amount of the stock re-
quired to do a certain job, how much is needed for the whole ?

124. To decide which can produce work with less expense, A and B,
receiving 28£ and 30^ per hour respectively, agree upon a contest,
each to make three packing boxes of the same dimensions. A does his
work in 2| hours, while B requires 3 hours to finish his work. Which
is the more profitable man, and by how much?

125. Estimate the length of shelving necessary to accommodate a
given quantity of books.

126. If 20 per cent of the cost of a job is labor, 7 per cent nails,
15 per cent painting, 10 per cent profit, what is the percentage of the
value of the other material ?

127. If 27 pieces of lumber are required for a piece of work,
aggregating 165 ft. of material, what per cent of the whole is one
piece ?

128. What per cent of a pile of lumber containing 1972 ft. is left,
if 1368 ft. are sold ?

129. If 276.027 ft. are 19 per cent of a pile of lumber, how much is
there in the whole pile?

164 INSIDE FINISHING

130. If 5 ft. of lumber is wasted in sawing 600 ft., what per cent is
wasted ?

131. Make a stock list for the finish of a given room.

132. A bought a lot of land for $100, giving his note at 7 per cent.
He built a small barn upon it, the material for which cost $175. At
the end of one year he sold the property for $350. What per cent
of this amount was his own?

133. If ^ of the cost of one piece of work is $56, or the completed
cost of another, what is the per cent of difference between the two ?

134. What is the per cent of profit of a piece of work which cost
$28.50, and was sold for $36.70?

135. If 7 men together do a piece of work, 2 of whom receive |
of the amount paid, what per cent will each of the other 5 receive if all
receive equal amounts ?

136. A builder borrows $1000 on a 4 months' note to help him
complete a contract. When the note matures his payment is $1037.50.
What was the annual rate of interest ?

137. Estimate the siding of a given house, making no allowance
for openings, and allowing | of area for waste.

138. A house cost $1225. The owner lived in the house three
months, during which time he made repairs costing $173.90. He then
sold the property for $1600. Estimating interest at 6 per cent, and
the rent of the house at $15 per month, what was the profit upon his
investment ?

139. A student works all summer, and all of the time possible
outside of school hours. He earns $135 per year, out of which he
pays three terms' bills at $30 per term, sends $20 home, and uses the
rest for incidentals. What per cent of the whole is the latter item ?

140. A certain job requires \ as much lumber as is used upon two
other jobs, one of which uses 29 ft., or 36 per cent as much as is
used for the two. What is the total amount used for the three
jobs?

141. A lumber dealer buys lumber for $20 per M, holds it at an
expense of $2 per M, and sells it for $30.50 per M. What is the
per cent of profit?

142. A student pays 82 per cent of his money or $30 for one term's
school expenses, and the rest for incidentals. How much did he
have originally ?

ARITHMETIC 165

(Questions 143 to 155 inclusive are suggestions for drill.)

143. What is the first power of 4; 8; 12?

144. What is the second power of 3; 9; 20; 25?

145. What is the third power of 6; 8; 12; 18; 30?

146. Raise the following numbers to the powers indicated by the
exponents: 3!; 122; 8!; 123; 18'; 303.

147. Square 6; 3; 5; 80.

148. Cube 3; 5; 9: 17.3978.

149. What are the two equal factors of 25; 156.25; 324; 600.25;
1600?

150. Of what number is 4 the second power? 9; 49; 81?

151. How many orders are there in the square roots of 100; 2809;
36,864?

152. How many orders are there in the square roots of 9; 49; 64; 81 ?

153. What is the square root of 4; 9; 16; 25; 49; 81; 100?

154. What is the square root of 625 ; 768; 5280; 12,967; 192,621?

155. What is the square root of 9.612; 22.94; 323.96; 4919.61?

156. What is the length of the diagonal of the floor of a closet 8'
long and & wide ?

157. The floor of a building is 24' X 32'; what is the length of its
diagonal ?

158. The diagonal of a room is 16', the height is 12' ; what is the
length from the corner at the floor to the corner at the ceiling, diago-
nally opposite ?

159. A ladder is resting against the plate of a house, at a point
20' from the ground. The foot of the ladder is 4' 9" from the house.
What is the length of the ladder ?

160. What would be the height of the riser of a flight of stairs
which has a total rise of 9' 3" from floor to floor ?

161. If a building is 8' clear from floor to ceiling, the lath and
plaster 1" thick, floor joists 2" X 8", and the flooring of the second
story 1" thick, what will be the rise of the stairs?

162. A flight of stairs in a school building has 18 risers which ex-
tend lO' 1£ " from floor to floor. What is the height of each riser ?

163. If there are 15 risers and the treads are 10" wide, what will
be the entire run of a straight flight of stairs?

164. If a step has a rise of 7£", and a run of 10|", what will be
the full width of the tread ?

166 INSIDE FINISHING

165. A straight run of stairs has 14 risers, and the treads are lift"
wide. What will be the entire run of the stairs ?

166. If a floor has an area of 700 sq. ft., and one side is 20', what
is the length of the diagonal ?

167. What would be the dimensions of a perfectly square room
1.72 sq. ft. larger than the above room ?

168. If the length of an armory is 80' and its diagonal is 100',
what is the width ?

169. A building is 28' high, and throws a shadow 18' on level
ground. How far is it from the end of the shadow to the top of the
building ?

170. The distance from the top of a pole to the end of its shadow
on the ground is 75.05'. If the shadow extends 40' from the base,
how high is the pole ?

171. What are the dimensions of each step of a flight which rises
108" and has a run of 135" ?

172. What would be the full width of the tread of the above
steps ?

173. What will be the total fall of a drain which is 450' long, and
has a pitch of 3" to every 50' ?

174. What will be the pitch per foot of the outside drain of a house
28' X 40', if it is 8" lower at the S.W. corner than it is at the N.E. ?

175. A drain is to be laid around the inside of a cellar 32' X 50',
one foot from the center of the drain to the inside of the wall. If it
has a fall of 4" to 50', what will be its total fall ?

176. If the diameter of a circle is
23", what is its circumference ?

177. What is its area ?

178. The circumference of a circle
is 45.86736 ft. What is its diameter ?

179. What is the area of a circle
14' 6" in diameter ?

180. How many circles with an
area of 2.1 sq. ft. will be contained
in a circle with a circumference of
25.13ft.?

181. What is the area of a lot of land of the dimensions shown in
Fig. 78?

ARITHMETIC 167

182. How many gallons of water may be contained in a cistern 10'
in diameter, and 10' high? (See Table 29, page 216.)

183. How many gallons of water may be contained in a cistern 9'
in diameter and 7' high?

184. What is the area of an irregular, four-sided floor the diagonals
of which meet at right angles and are 70' and 39.889' respectively ?

Suggestions for drill in the use of:

185. Signs of division.

(a) 6 -. 3; (6) 12 - 6; (c) 50 -s- 2; (d) 60 * 3; (e) 80 -5- 4;
(/)9:3; (0)8:2; (fc)28:7; (i) 110:11; (j) 36:9; (fc) 50:25;

(075:15;
(m)49/7; (n) 28/4; (o) 96/24: (p) 65/5; (g) 80/16;

(r)42/7;

186. Vinculum.

(a) 5 +6 X7; (6) 9 - 6 X 6.

Parenthesis.

(e) (5 X 6) (7 - 5) ; (/) (6 + 18) 12.

Brackets.

(g) [9 + 12] x 6; (h) [7 - 3] X 12; (i) [6 + 4] X [5 - 1];

tf ) [5 + 3] X 6.
Brace.

(fc) {6+5}x5; (0 {5+31x2; (m) {4+6}x9;
(n) {4 - 3} X 21.

187. Radical sign.

(a) ^3+6; (6) V32 X 2 ; (c) V9 + 7 ; (d) V(3 X 15) +4;
(e) V(7 + 5) X 2 + 1 ; (/) ^(6 X 4) + 3 ; (g) ^

188. Use signs as follows :

(a) [(3 X 4) + 6] 2; (6) [(12 x 3 -s- 4) X 6];

(6 X 5 X 3) ^ 6 Vl2 X 3 + (2 X 21) .

5 16

168 INSIDE FINISHING

(/)

X 3 + 149991\

3QQQ

v4 X 5 + 5 + (20 X 7 + 5)
(2 X 5) X (10 + 5)

V[(9 X 169 + 60) 87] 2 + (12 X 73 X 64 + 618)
(0) -

(6 X 9 X 2 + 36)

18
Formulas.

189. What is the area of a rectangle 400' X 296' ? Use the fol-
lowing formula in the solution of this problem.

L = length. W = width. A = area.

Formula A. A = L X W.

190. Find | of the cubic contents of a room 15 ft. long, 12 ft, wide,
and 9 ft. high, using the following formula :

L = length. H = height.

W = width. C = cubic contents.

Formula B. C = L X W X H.

191. How many square feet of boards will be required to cover the
two gables of a half pitch house which is 20' wide ? Make no allow-
ance for waste.

Area of a triangle.

B = base. H = height. A = area.

Formula C. A = ^->L5.

192. How many feet of boards will be required to cover the
gables of a third pitch house which is 24' wide ? Make no allowance
for waste.

193. How many square feet are there in a room which is 30' upon
one side, 35' upon the other, and 25' wide ?

L = length of short side. W = width.

B = length of long side. A = area.

Formula D. A = L + BW.

ARITHMETIC

169

194. What is the area of an octagonal room which is 5' upon each
side, and 6' \" from the center to the side ?

L = length of one side. N = number of sides. .1 = area.
\V = perpendicular distance from the center to the side.

Formula E. A =MK*
2i

195. Find the area of an irregular polygon, by the method indicated
in Fig. 79.

196. Find the circumference of a circle which is 9' in diameter.

IT = pi, the ratio of the diameter to the circumference, = 3.1416.
C = circumference. R = radius. D = diameter.

Formula F. C = 2 irR = DTT.

197. What is the diameter of a circle which is 39.27 ft. in circum-
ference ?

Formula G. D =-.

198. What is the area of a circle which is 7' in diameter ?

Formula H. A = D2 .7854.

Another method. Formula I. A = TT/J?.

199. Find the diameter of a circle which is 314.16 sq. ft. in area.

Formula J. D =

.7854

200. What is the area of a circular wall 12' in diameter outside,
and 9' inside ?

170 INSIDE FINISHING

201. Find the length of an arc of 24° which has a radius of 6'.

L = length of arc. R = radius.

N = number of degrees. C = circumference.

Formula K. L =

57.3

Another method. Formula L. L = — ^rN.

ooO

202. What is the area of a circular auditorium which is 160' in
diameter ?

203. How many pupils could stand sideways around the wall, if each
occupied approximately 12" of space, allowing 30.46' for openings?

204. If the ceiling of a hall 150' X 150' is 21.4377' above the floor,
what are the cubic contents of the room? Omit fractions in the
answer.

205. The walls of an auditorium, 120.58' square and 25' high, are to
be plastered. How many square feet of wall space will have to bo
covered if no allowance is made for openings ?

206. What is the brick area of a wall which is 39.20' X 40' upon the
outside, pierced with a circular hole which is 20' across ?

The steel square is to be used as much as possible in the solution
of the following problems.

207. If a building is 28' X 40', and the batter boards are 5' from
each corner, what is the distance between their corners ?

208. What will be the length of the diagonals of the above batter
boards ?

209. If a building is 24' X 32', what is the length of each diagonal ?

210. What is the length of a brace completing a triangle, each of
the two sides of which is 57" long ?

211. What is the length of a brace completing a triangle, the sides
of which are 6' and 8' long ?

212. Allowing 2| tons per square foot for a safe load, what will a
footing course 6' X 6' carry upon a bottom of hard clay ?

213. A load of 300,000 Ib. is to be supported upon a gravel bed,
which will safely carry 8 tons per square foot. What should be the
area of the foot of the pier ?

214. If a foundation is 25' X 32', how large ought the bottom of
the excavation to be to allow for a footing course and a tile drain ?

ARITHMETIC 171

215. What is the length of a brace completing a triangle, the sides
of which are 9.295' and 14' long ?

216. Which will have the more sectional area, an 8" X 8" sill,
with a 2" X 4' 'and a 2" X 2" mortise, or "a 6" X 8", with no mortis-
ing, and a 2" X 4" spiked on to support floor joists, and how much
greater ?

217. If a girt is 8" X 8", and 2 floor joists are mortised into it each
with a 2" X 4" tenon, wrhat is the actual area of the girt ?

218. What is the length of a brace completing a triangle each side
of which is 4' 6" long ?

219. What is the length of a balloon brace for sides 30" X 12' long?

220. If a floor is well bridged, and a load of 12,000 Ib. causes a
deflection of A", what would be the deflection if the floor were not
bridged ?

221. What is the greatest square which can be contained in a 24"
circle ?

222. What will be the size of a square § of the area of one measur-
ing 10' upon each side ?

223. What will be the diameter of a circle which will equal the
area of two given circles, one 5' and the other 8' in diameter?

224. If an octagon is 5' upon one side, what is its width ?

225. If a hexagon is 5' 1 1 \" upon each side, what is its width ?

226. What is the length of the diagonal of an octagon which is 5'
upon a side ?

227. What will be the rise of a half pitch roof, if the house is 28'
wide ?

.NOTE. — In problems 228, 229, 230, estimate the width of the
shingled area of each side of the roofs, to equal the next larger foot
than the actual dimensions.

228. If the above roof has a projection of 18" and the house is 35'
long, how many shingles will be needed to cover the roof, allowing
1000 per square, the rafters being 2' longer than the actual length?

229. A third pitch roof house 28' X 36' 9", with a lookout of 18"
horizontal projection, is to be covered with a steel roof at a cost of $3
per square. What will it cost ?

230. The roof of a quarter pitch house, 30' X 28', with a lookout
of 12" horizontal projection, is to be painted at a cost of SI. 25 per
square. What will it cost?

172 INSIDE FINISHING

231. What is the length of a rafter of a half pitch roof, if the
house is 29' wide?

232. If the rafters are to be set 24" to centers, how many will be
required for a roof which is 40' long?

233. What will be the length of the common rafter of a half pitch
roof if the house is 24' wide ?

234. What will be the rise and run of the common rafter of a third
pitch roof of a building 32' wide ?

235. What will be the length of a common rafter of a two-thirds
pitch roof if the house is 24' wide?

236. What will be the length of a common rafter of a third pitch
roof of a house which is 27' wide ?

237. If a hip roof is to be built upon a house which is 28' square,
will there be any ridge ?

238. If a hip roof house is 26' wide and 29' long, how long will the
ridge be ?

239. If a ridge 2' 11" long extends to take the entire side cut of
the hip rafters, what will be the entire length of it ?

240. If a If" ridge board is used, how much shorter will each end
of the ridge be ? Give the answer to the nearest 12 of an inch.

241. A shed roof rises 12" to 12'. Allowing 1' for lookouts, what
will be the entire length of the rafter ?

242. What will be the entire rise of the roof from eaves to eaves ?

243. What will be the length of the lookouts of a half pitch roof,
which projects 22" ?

244. What will be the length of the hip rafter of a half pitch house
24' wide?

245. What will be the length of the hip rafter of a third pitch house
28' wide?

246. What will be the length of the hip rafter of a quarter pitch
house 25' 11" wide?

247. What will be the length of a hip lookout for a third pitch
house, if the common rafters project 18"?

248. How much shorter will a quarter pitch hip rafter be cut if
a 2" ridge is used, the ridge taking the entire joint of the hip ?

249. What will be the length of the collar beam for a half pitch
house, if the bottom is placed 6' below the apex of the roof ?

250. Find the same for a third pitch house.

ARITHMETIC 173

251. Find the same for a fourth pitch house.

252. What will be the length of the strut which supports the com-
mon rafter of a quarter pitch roof ? It is square with the rafter and
6 ft. from the end.

253. Find the same for a third pitch house.

254. Find the same for a quarter pitch house.

255. An octagonal tower is to be built, 6' upon each side. What
is the parallel width of the tower?

256. What is the diagonal of the above tower ?

257. What is the length of the hip rafter of the above tower, if it
is 10' high at the apex ?

258. If a 6" king post is used, how much will each hip rafter be
shortened ?

259. The common rafters of the roof of an addition are to be cut to
dimensions instead of an ordinary pitch. If the run of these rafters
is 10' 1", and the rise 6' 4", what will be their length?

260. If a hexagonal tower 8' upon one side is to be built, what is
its diagonal?

261. What will be the parallel width of the above tower?

262. What will be the length of the hip rafter if the above roof
rises 12'?

263. If a circular roof 22' in diameter and 11' high is to be built,
what will be the length of the first pair of rafters ?

264. Find the length of the second pair.

265. Find the lengths of the third and fourth pairs.

266. What will be the length of the valley rafter of a third pitch
house, which is 24' wide, an ell 20' wide joining the main house?

267. If a 2" hip is used, how much shorter will the valley rafter be ?

268. If the common rafters of a half pitch roof meet at the apex
and jacks are to be 2' to centers, how much shorter will the first jack
be than the common rafter ?

269. Work out the same problem for a third pitch house.

270. If the center of the common rafter of a quarter pitch roof is
9" away from the hip apex and 22" from the center of the first
jack, how much shorter will the jack be than the common rafters ?

271. If the common rafter of a third pitch house is 12' long, and
is set 8" from the apex of the hip, what is the length of the first
jack?

174 INSIDE FINISHING

272. What will be the length of the longest jacks of an octagonal
roof which is 18' wide between sides, with a rise of 12', if they are
placed 2' 6" on centers at the plate ? In this case, the middle rafter
of each side of the roof is not considered a jack.

273. If 2" hips are used, how much shorter will the top ends of
these rafters have- to be cut ?

274. The material costs twice as much as the labor upon a certain
house which is to be built upon a hilltop. On account of the loca-
tion it costs 5 per cent more to get the material, and since the men come
from the city to the building, the increase of the cost of labor is 4 per
cent. If the cost of the house in an ordinary locality would have
been $2100, what will be the cost of this house ?

275. At $1.37^ per minimum day's work, what will it cost to exca-
vate and wheel 60 ft. the earth from a cellar 30' X 45', and 4' deep ?

276. If a mason is paid $3 per day, and a helper $1.50, how much
will it cost to build the rubble stone wall of a house, 25' X 32' X 16"
thick, and 8' high ?

277. How many bushels of sand and lime will be required in build-
ing the above wall ?

278. How much will it cost for labor upon a brick wall, 40' long,
25.014' high, 16" thick, allowing £ for openings? The bricklayer lays
the average number of bricks, and receives $3 per day, and the helper
$1.50.

279. How many bushels of sand and lime will be necessary to lay
24,330 bricks ?

280. How many studs will be necessary for the outside walls of a
rectangular building 25' X 40', 12 openings?

281. The joists of a floor 32' long X 18' wide are set 16" on centers,
and the floor is strengthened by two rows of bridging, which costs
4 ct. per set. What is the cost of the bridging?

282. How much horizontal sheathing will it take to cover the
walls of a hip roof building 27' 6" X 38' 3", and 16' high to the eaves ?
Make no allowance for openings.

283. If the house is boarded diagonally, how much will it take?
Make no allowance for openings.

284. A floor 20' X 16' is to be laid of 4" matched boards. How
many feet will it take ?

285. What will be the amount if 3" boards are used ?

ARITHMETIC 175

286. How many square feet of 6" siding will be required to cover
the walls of an octagonal auditorium 64.1' upon each side, and 20'
high, with the usual number of windows ?

287. How much 4" matched siding would be used for the above
building ?

288. If a cornice 26" wide is to be built upon this house, how much
will it cost, estimating the size of the house as the length of the cornice ?

NOTE. — Questions 289 to 300, inclusive, refer to labor only.

289. If it takes 6000 ft. of studding to build a house, how much
will it cost to set it, if the minimum day's work is done with wages
at $2.25 per day?

290. If it takes 3000 ft. of rafters to frame a house, how much will
it cost with labor at $2.25 per day ?

291. If it takes 3375 ft. of floor joists to frame the floors of a cer-
tain building, how much will the labor cost at $2.50 per day ?

292. If it takes 14,500 ft. of sheathing to cover a house, how much
will it cost if the men receive $1.75 per day ?

293. If a house requires 6300 ft. of siding, how much will it cost
if the men receive $2.25 per day ?

294. If a house requires 30,220 shingles, how much will it cost to
lay them ?

295. How much will it cost to set 28 window frames, at $2.50 per
day of 10 hours ?

296. How much will it cost to put a ceiling wainscot around 6
rooms, aggregating 275' spread, and 3' 6" high, if the men receive
$2.50 per da}r, and do a maximum day's work ?

297. 62 inside doors are to be hung and trimmed. If the wages
are $2.75 per day, and if mortise locks are used, how much will the
job cost?

298. At $8 per square, how much will it cost to put a tin roof upon
a building which is 20' X 36' with a projection of 12" ?

299. What will it cost at $.22 per square yard to lath and plaster 6
rooms, 12' X 16', averaging 8' high?

300. If it takes 18 inch laths per square yard and labor costs $2 per
day, what will the labor cost to lath a house containing 387 sq. yd. ?

301. If the cost of building figures up to $2533, what will be the
estimate after the hardware is added, allowing the minimum estimate ?

176 INSIDE FINISHING

302. If the hardware in a certain house cost $73.80, how much will
it cost to put it on ?

303. How many gallons of paint will be necessary to cover (2 coats)
a building which has a surface of 9000 sq. ft. ?

304. If the paint for a building costs $84, how much should the
labor of putting it on cost ? (See Section 69.)

305. How many gallons of paint are necessary to cover (2 coats)
4200 sq. ft., allowing f for large openings ?

306. A job of papering requires 67 double rolls. What will the
cost of laying it be ?

307. If a job of paperhanging requires 93 double rolls of paper,
at 8ff per roll, and it costs $.12£ per single roll to lay it, what will
the job cost?

CHAPTER IX
TABLES
TABLE i

ASPHALT FLOOR

6 parts asphalt.
1 part coal tar.
3 parts sand.

TABLE 2
BENDING
Radius X .05 = thickness of pine which will bend without special preparation.

TABLE 3
CELLAR SASH

TWO-LIGHT SASH If" THICK

THREE-LIGHT SASH 1J" THICK

Size of Glass

Size of Sash

Size of Glass

Size of Sash

10' X 12"

2' 1" X 16"

7" X 9"

2' 1" X 13"

10' X 14"

2' 1" X 18"

8" X 10"

2' 4" X 14"

10' X 16"

2' 1" X 20"

9" X 12"

2' 7" X 16"

10' X 18"

2' 1" X 22"

9" X 13"

2' 7" X 17"

12' X 12"

2' 5" X 16"

9" X 14"

2' 7" X 18"

12' X 14"

2' 5" X 18"

10" X 12"

2' 10" X 16"

12' X 16"

2' 5" X 20"

10" X 14"

2' 10" X 18"

12' X 18"

2' 5" X 22"

10" X 16"

2' 10" X 20"

12' X 20"

2' 5" X 24"

12" X 12"

3' 4" X 16"

14' X 16"

2' 9" X 20"

12" X 14"

3' 4" X 18"

14' X 18"

2' 9" X 22"

12" X 16"

3' 4" X 20"

14' X 20"

2' 9" X 24"

14' X 22"

2' 9" X 26"

14' X 24"

2' 9" X 28"

177

178

INSIDE FINISHING

TABLES

179

-*• X -r X -M -^ O C: 7) -^ ' C " O *r C: - -f 'X
TjHTffNC^roro^coco

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

3 . 2
^^^^
553 ««

1*1!

3 <3 j
^ C ^

§ CM
T3- -7

f* c£ji

Slst

180 INSIDE FINISHING

TABLE 5

PAINTING

To remove old paint : Dissolve 2 oz. of soft soap, 4 oz. of potash in boiling
water ; add £ Ib. of quicklime. Apply hot, and leave from 12 to 24 hours ;
wash off with hot water.

To dip 1000 shingles a third of their length, requires 2| gal. of stain.

1 Ib. of paint covers 3| to 4 sq. yd., the first coat ; 4| to 6 sq. yd. for each
succeeding coat.

On brick 1 Ib. of paint covers 3 sq. yd. the first coat, and 4 sq. yd. for each
succeeding coat.

Colored paint covers about a third more than white.

1 gal. of paint will cover 250 to 300 sq. ft. two coats.

1 gal. of paint will cover 300 to 350 sq. ft. of metal, one coat.

1 gal. of paint weighs about 16 Ib.

1 gal. of shingle stain will cover 200 sq. ft. or dip about 400 shingles.

Rough-sawed shingles require 50 per cent more stain than smooth.

1 Ib. of cold water paint covers 50 to 75 sq. ft. for first coat on wood, or 40ft.
on brick or stone.

1 gal. of filler covers 300 to 400 sq. ft. the first coat, and 400 to 500 ft. for
succeeding coats. 10 Ib. of paste filler will cover from 350 to 400 sq. ft.

1 gal. of varnish weighs 8 to 9 Ib.

1 gal. of turpentine weighs 7 Ib.

1 gal. of linseed oil weighs 7| Ib.

5 Ib. of putty will be required to putty 100 sq. yd. of ordinary surface.

Sizing ; ^ Ib. of glue to 1 gal. of water.

Priming coat ; 100 Ib. of white lead, 7 gal. oil, f- gal. of japan drier.

Second coat ; 100 Ib. of white lead, 7 gal. oil.

Third coat ; 100 Ib. of white lead, 6i to 7 gal. of oil.

Three gal. of boiled oil to 2 gal. of raw oil for outside work.

Upon plain work the labor costs about If times the material.

Stippling costs about the same as two coats of paint.

TABLE 6
WALL PAPER

Double roll ; 16 yd. long, 18" or 20" wide.
Cartridge or felt papers ; 30" wide, 16 yd. to a roll.

The usual cost of papering is from 12| to 25 ^ per double roll lapped, and from
50 to 75 ^, for glazed paper. Butted paper costs from 10 to 15 ^ more per double
roll ; in large cities the prices are generally from 20 to 40 per cent higher than
those given above.

TABLES

181

TABLE 7
PLASTERING (QUANTITIES FOB 100 SQ. YD.)

1440 laths, H".

10 Ib. nails.

Labor lathing, 1 day.

3-coat work.
13 bu. of lime.
1 bu. of hair.
1^ load of sand.

5 bbl. of plaster of Paris.
Labor; plasterer 3j days,
helper 2| days.

2-coat work.

10 bu. lime.

f bu. of hair.

1 load of sand.

$ bbl. of plaster of Paris.

TABLE 8
SHINGLES

1000 WILL COVER

NUMBER OF SHINGLES REQUIRED
TO LAY ONE SQUARE

To Weather

4" Wide

6" Wide

4" Wide

6" Wide

111 sq. ft.

167 sq. ft.

900

600

139 sq. ft.

208 sq. ft.

720

480

167 sq. ft.

250 sq. ft.

600

400

194 sq. ft.

291 sq. ft.

514

343

222 sq. ft.

333 sq. ft.

450

300

TABLE 9

NUMBER OF SLATES REQUIRED PER SQUARE

SIZE

NUMBER

SIZE

NUMBER

SIZE

NUMBER

X 12'

553

9" X 16'

246

14'

X20'

121

X 12'

457

10" X 16'

221

11'

X22'

138

X 12'

400

9" X 18'

213

12'

X22'

126

X 12'

355

10" X 18'

192

13'

X22'

116

X 14'

374

11" X 18'

174

14'

X22'

108

X 14'

327

12" X 18'

160

12'

X24'

114

X 14'

291

10" X 20'

169

13'

X24'

105

10'

X 14'

261

11" X 20'

154

14'

X24'

X 16'

277

12" X 20'

141

16'

X24'

182

INSIDE FINISHING

TABLE 10

SIZES or NAILS AND NUMBER PER POUND

SIZE

LENGTH

NUMBER p

ER POUND

IN INCHES

Common

Finishing

Casing

Flooring

860

1558

1140

3d Fine ....

3d Com

594

884

675

339

767

567

5d
6d

230
205

491
359

396
260

151

7d
8d
9d .......
lOd
12d
16d
20d
30d

2i
2|
2|
3
3i
3|
4
4|

135
96
92
63
52
38
30
23

317
214
195
134
120
91
61

239
160
148
108
99
69
50
45

136
98
86
66
51
40
29

40d

50d

13|

60d

10£

TABLE 11

NUMBER OF NAILS REQUIRED

Shingles per M

5 Ib

4d com

Laths per M. ...

7 Ib

3d com

Beveled siding, per M. . ....

18 Ib

6d com

Sheathing, per M

20 Ib. or

8d com.

Flooring, rough, per M
Studding per M. ...

25 Ib.
30 Ib. or
40 Ib.
15 Ib. or

lOd com.
8d com.
lOd com.
lOd com.

Furring per M. ....

51b.
10 Ib

20d com.
lOd com

( */>!
Finished flooring, per M. |ii//[

f20 Ib. or
30 Ib.

8d&10dfin.
lOd fin.

TABLES

183

TABLE 12
CHIMNEYS

NUMBER OF FLUE

SIZE

OF FLUE

SIZE OF

CHIMNEY

NUMBER OF BRICKS
PER FOOT IN HEIGHT l

X 8"

16"

X 16"

16"

X24"

X 8"

16"

X28"

X 8"

16"

X 40"

X 8"

16"

X52"

12"

X 12"

20"

X20"

12"

X 16"

20"

X24"

Five courses of brick to a foot in height.

TABLE 13

STABLES ; MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

1200 cu. ft. per horse. (The U. S. Army allows 1500.)

16' 6" width of building for one stall.

29' 0" width of building for two stalls.

Box stalls: 12' 0" X 12' 0".

Single stalls : 9' 6" X 6' 2". Stalls are sometimes made as narrow as 4' 0",
but only where space is very valuable.

A stall floor should not slant more than 1£" in its length.

Stall divisions should be 4' 6" high in the rear, 7' 0" at the head.

There should be 9 sq. ft. of glass space for each horse.

There should be ventilating shafts which will allow 18 inches square for each
horse.

Doors should either slide, or open outwards.

TABLE 14
SIZES or BOXES FOR DIFFERENT MEASURES

LENGTH
INCHES

WIDTH
INCHES

DEPTH
INCHES

CAPACITY

LENGTH
INCHES

WIDTH
INCHES

DEPTH
INCHES

CAPACITY

1 ton of coal.

1 peck.

1 bbl. or 3 bu.

1 gallon.

Jbbl.

| gallon.

1 bushel.

1 quart.

|bu.

1 pint.

184

INSIDE FINISHING

TABLE 15. DIAMETERS, AREAS, AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES

DlAM.

AREA

CIR.

DlAM.

AREA

CIR.

DlAM.

AREA

Cm.

0.0123

.3927

201.06

50.26

2290.2

169.6

0.0491

.7854

213.82

51.83

2375.8

172.8

0.1104

1.178

226.98

53.40

2463.0

175.9

0.1963

1.571

240.53

54.98

2551.8

179.1

0.3068

1.963,

254.47

56.55

2642.1

182.2

0.4418

2.356

268.80

58.12

2734.0

185.3

0.6013

2.741

283.53

59.69

2827.4

188.5

0.7854

3.142

298.65

61.26

2922.5

191.6

0.9940

3.534

314.16

62.83

3019.1

194.8

1.227

3.927

330.06

64.40

3117.2

197.9

1.485

4.319

346.36

65.97

3217.0

201.0

1.767

4.712

363.05

67.54

3318.3

204.2

2.074

5.105

380.13

69.11

3421.2

207.3

2.405

5.498

397.61

70.68

3525.7

210.5

2.761

5.890

415.48

72.25

3631.7

213.6

3.142

6.283

433.73

73.83

3739.3

216.7

3.976

7.068

452.39

75.40

3848.5

219.9

4.909

7.854

471.43

76.97

3959.2

223.0

5.939

8.639

490.87

78.54

4071.5

226.2

7.068

9.425

530.93

81.68

4185.4

229.3

8.296

10.21

572.56

84.82

4300.8

232.5

9.621

10.99

615.75

87.96

4417.9

235.6

11.044

11.78

660.52

91.10

4536.5

238.7

12.566

12.56

706.86

94.25

4656.7

241.9

15.904

14.14

754.77

97.39

4778.4

245.0

19.635

15.71

804.25

100.5

4901.7

248.2

23.758

17.23

855.30

103.6

5026.6

251.3

28.274

18.85

907.92

106.8

5153.0

254.5

33.183

20.42

962.11

109.9

5281.0

257.6

38.484

21.99

1017.9

113.1

5410.6

260.7

44.179

23.56

1075.2

116.2

5541.8

263.9

50.265

25.13

1134.1

119.4

5674.5

267.0

56.745

26.70

1194.6

122.5

5808.8

270.2

63.617

28.27

1256.6

125.6

5944.7

273.3

70.882

29.84

1320.2

128.8

6082.1

276.4

78.54

31.41

1385.4

131.9

6221.1

279.6

86.59

32.98

1452.2

135.1

6361.7

282.7

95.03

34.55

1520.5

138.2

6503.9

285.9

103.87

36.13

1590.4

141.4

6647.6

289.0

113.10

37.70

1661.9

144.5

6792.9

292.2

122.72

39.27

1734.9

147.6

6939.8

295.3

132.73

40.84

1809.6

150.8

7088.2

298.4

143.14

42.41

1885.7

153.9

7238.2

301.6

153.94

43.98

1963.5

157.1

7389.8

304.7

165.13

45.55

2042.8

160.2

7543.0

307.9

176.71

47.12

2123.7

163.3

7697.7

311.0

188.69

48.69

2206.2

166.5

100

7854.0

314.2

TABLES

185

To find the circumference and area of any diameter greater than any in the
preceding table. Rule. — Multiply any diameter given above by the factor 2,
3, 4, or 5, etc., the product of which will be the diameter whose circumference
and area are wanted. Example. — What is the circumference of 140 ? Tabular
diameter of 35 X 4 = 140. Tabular circumference of 35 = 109.9 X 4 =
439.6, circumference wanted. Rule for the Area. — Multiply the tabular area
of tabular diameter by the square of the factor. Example. — What is the area
of 140? Tabular area of 35 = 962.11 X 16 (is the square of the factor 4) =
15,393.76, area wanted. The Circle. — The circumference of a circle is equal to
the diameter multiplied by 3.1416. The area of a circle is equal to the
square of the diameter multiplied by .7854.

TABLE 16
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF A LINEAR FOOT

LINEAR
INCHES

LINEAR FOOT

LINEAR
INCHES

LINEAR FOOT

LINEAR
INCHES

LINEAR FOOT

A-

0.001302083

0.15625

0.5416

0.00260416

0.1666

0.5625

0.0052083

0.177083

0.5833

0.010416

0.1875

0.60416

0.015625

0.197916

7§

0.625

0.02083

0.2083

0.64583

0.0260416

0.21875

0.66667

0.03125

0.22916

0.6875

T76

0.0364583

0.239583

0.7083

0.0416

0.25

0.72916

0.046875

0.27083

0.75

0.052083

0.2916

0.77083

0.0572916

0.3125

0.7916

0.0625

0.33333

0.8125

0.0677083

0.35416

0.83333

0.072916

0.375

101

0.85416

0.078125

0.39583

10*

0.875

0.0833

0.4166

lOf

0.89583

0.09375

0.4375

0.9166

0.10416

0.4583

111

0.9375

0.114583

0.47916

11*

0.9583

0.125

0.5

111

0.97916

0.135416

0.52083

1.000

0.14583

186

INSIDE FINISHING

TABLE 17
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF THE FRACTIONAL PARTS OF AN INCH

1-64 0156

1-32 0313

3-64 x • • -0469

1-16 0625

5-64 0781

3-32 0938

7-64 1094

1-8 125

9-64 1406

5-32 1563

11-64 .1719

3-16 1875

13-64 2031

7-32 2188

15-64 2344

1-4 25

17-64 2656

9-32 N .2813

19-64 2969

6-16 3125

21-64 3281

11-32 3438

23-64 3594

3-8 . .375

25-64 3906

13-32 4063

27-64 4219

7-16 4375

29-64 4531

15-32 4688

31-64 . . .4844

1-2

33-64 5156

17-32 5313

35-64 5469

9-16 5625

37-64 5781

19-32 5938

39-64 6094

5-8 625

41-64 6406

21-32 6563

43-64 6719

11-16 6875

45-64 7031

23-32 7188

47-64 7344

3-4 75

49-64 7656

25-32 7813

51-64 7969

13-16 8125

53-64 8281

27-32 8438

55-64 8594

7-8 875

57-64 8906

29-32 9063

59-64 .9219

15-16 9375

61-64 9531

31-32 9688

63-64 . . .9844

TABLES

187

TABLE 18
CONTENTS OF ROUND TANKS IN GALLONS

DIAMETER

GALLONS
1 FOOT
DEPTH

DIAMETER

GALLONS
1 FOOT
DEPTH

DIAMETER

GALLONS
1 FOOT
DEPTH

Feet

Inches

Feet

Inches

Feet

Inches

93.97

502.55

1850.53

97.93

530.08

101.97

558.35

1903.02

103.03

1956.25

110.29

587.35

2010.21

J 14.57

617.08

2064.91

118.93

647.55

• 7

123.38

678.27

2120.34

127.91

2176.51

132.52

710.69

2233.29

137.21

743.36

2291.04

142.05

776.77

810.91

2349.41

146.83

2408.51

151.77

848.18

2468.35

156.78

881.39

2528.92

161.88

917.73

167.06

954.81

2590.22

172.33

2652.25

177.67

992.62

2715.04

183.09

1031.17

2778.54

188.60

1070.45

194.19

1108.06

2842.79

199.86

2907.76

205.61

1151.21

2973.48

1192.69

3039.92

211.44

1234.91

229.43

1277.86

3107.10

248.15

3175.01

267.61

1321.54

3243.65

1365.96

3313.04

287.80

1407.51

308.72

1457.00

3383.15

330.38

3454.00

352.76

1503.62

3525.59

1550.97

3597.90

375.90

1599.06

399.76

1647.89

3670.95

424.36

3744.74

449.21

1697.45

3819.26

1747.74

3894.52

475.75

1798.76

188

INSIDE FINISHING

TABLE 19
WEIGHTS AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES

BUILDING MATERIALS

WEIGHT IN LB.
PER Cu. FT.

SPECIFIC GRAV-
ITY

Ash (all woods kiln dried)
Brick common ...

36 to 42
100

.60 to .70
1.60

pressed

150

2.40

Cement Portland

80 to 100

1 44

Cherry

36 to 42

672

Chestnut

24 to 30

40 to 50

Coal, bituminous, broken
Coke

.80
37 to .51

Cypress

24 to 30

40 to .50

Earth, dry, loose Common Loam . . .
rammed Common Loam .
moist, loose Common Loam .
packed Common Loam . . .
soft mud
Elm, best

72 to 80
90 to 100
67 to 75
90 to 100
104 to 120
42 to 48

1.36
1.52
1.31
1.74
2.09
.70 to .80

Glass common

157 to 186

2 52

Granite

170

2 72

Hemlock

24 to 30

40 to 50

Hickory

42 to 48

70 to .80

Ice

574

Iron cast .

450

7.21

wrought

480

7.69

Lead
Lime .

710
70

11.38

.80

Locust black

42 to 48

70 to 80

Mahogany

35 to 53

. 56 to 85

Maple ....

36 to 42

60 to 70

Masonry granite or limestone

165

2 65

rubble

125 to 140

2 21

Mortar

103

1 65

Oak, white
Pine, white
yellow
Poplar

42 to 48
18 to 24
30 to 36
18 to 24

.70 to .80
.30 to .40
.50 to .60
30 to 40

Sand dry

90 to 106

1 80

wet ...

118 to 129

2 19

Spruce .

24 to 30

.40 to 50

Steel
Sycamore

490
30 to 36

7.85
.50 to .60

Walnut black

36 to 42

60 to 70

NOTE. — Green timber will usually weigh from 20 per cent to 40 per cent more
than the above given weights. Weather dried timber will generally weigh
about 15 per cent to 20 per cent more.

TABLES

189

TABLE 20
SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

1.0000000

1.4142136

1.2599210

1.7320508

1.4422496

2.0000000

1.5874011

125

2.2360680

1.7099759

216

2.4494897

1.8171206

343

2.6457513

1.9129312

512

2.8284271

2.0000000

729

3.0000000

2.0800837

100

1000

3.1622777

2.1544347

121

1331

3.3166248

2.2239801

144

1728

3.4641016

2.2894286

169

2197

3.6055513

2.3513347

196

2744

3.7416574

2.4101422

225

3375

3.8729833

2.4662121

256

4096

4.0000000

2.5198421

289

4913

4.1231056

2.5712816

324

5832

4.2426407

2.6207414

361

6859

4.3588989

2.6684016

400

8000

4.4721360

2.7144177

441

9261

4.5825757

2.7589243

484

10648

4.6904158

2.8020393

529

12167

4.7958315

2.8438670

576

13824

4.8989795

2.8844991

625

15625

5.0000000

2.9240177

676

17576

5.0990195

2.9624960

729

19683

5.1961524

3.0000000

784

21952

5.2915026

3.0365889

841

24389

5.3851648

3.0723168

900

27000

5.4772256

3.1072325

961

29791

5.5677644

3.1413806

1024

32768

5.6568542

3.1748021

1089

35937

5.7445626

3.2075343

1156

39304

5.8309519

3.2396118

1225

42875

5.9160798

3.2710663

1296

46656

6.0000000

3.3019272

1369

50653

6.0827625

3.3322218

1444

54872

6.1644140

3.3619754

1521

59319

6.2449980

3.3912114

1600

64000

6.3245553

3.4199519

i ;

190

INSIDE FINISHING

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

1681

68921

6.4031242

3.4482172

1764

74088

6.4807407

3.4760266

1849

79507

6.5574385

3.5033981

1936

85184

6.6332496

3.5303483

2025

91125

6.7082039

3.5568933

2116

97336

6.7823300

3.5830479

2209

103823

6.8556546

3.6088261

2304

110592

6.9282032

3.6342411

2401

117649

7.0000000

3.6593057

2500

125000

7.0710678

3.6840314

2601

132651

7.1414284

3.7084298

2704

140608

7.2111026

3.7325111

2809

148877

7.2801099

3.7562858

2916

157464

7.3484692

3.7797631

3025

166375

7.4161985

3.8029525

3136

175616

7.4833148

3.8258624

3249

185193

7.5498344

3.8485011

3364

195112

7.6157731

3.8708766

3481

205379

7.6811457

3.8929965

3600

216000

7.7459667

3.9148676

3721

226981

7.8102497

3.9364972

3844

238328

7.8740079

3.9578915

3969

250047

7.9372539

3.9790571

4096

262144

8.0000000

4.0000000

4225

274625

8.0622577

4.0207256

4356

287496

8.1240384

4.0412401

4489

300763

8.1853528

4.0615480

4624

314432

8.2462113

4.0816551

4761

328509

8.3066239

4.1015661

4900

343000

8.3666003

4.1212853

5041

357911

8.4261498

4.1408178

5184

373248

8.4852814

4.1601676

5329

389017

8.5440037

4.1793390

5476

405224

8.6023253

4.1983364

. 5625

421875

8.6602540

4.2171633

5776

438976

8.7177979

4.2358236

5929

456533

8.7749644

4.2543210

6084

474552

8.8317609

4.2726586

6241

493039

8.8881944

4.2908404

6400

512000

8.9442719

4.3088695

6561

531441

9.0000000

4.3267487

TABLES

191

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

6724

551368 .

9.0553851

4.3444815

6889

571787

9.1104336

4.3620707

7056

592704

9.1651514

4.3795191

7225

614125

9.2195445

4.3968296

7396

636056

9.2736185

4.4140049

7569

658503

9.3273791

4.4310476

7744

681472

9.3808315

4.4479602

7921

704969

9.4339811

4.4647451

8100

729000

9.4868330

4.4814047

8281

753571

9.5393920

4.4979414

8464

778688

9.5916630

4.5143574

8649

804357

9.6436508

4.5306549

8836

830584

9.6953597

4.5468359

9025

857375

9.7467943

4.5629026

9216

884736

9.7979590

4.5788570

9409

912673

9.8488578

4.5947009

9604

941192

9.8994949

4.6104363

9801

970299

9.9498744

4.6260650

100

10000

1000000

10.0000000

4.6415888

101

10201

1030301

10.0498756

4.6570095

102

10404

1061208

10.0995049

4.6723287

103

10609

1092727

10.1488916

4.6875482

104

10816

1124864

10.1980390

4.7026694

105

11025

1157625

10.2469508

4.7176940

106

11236

1191016

10.2956301

4.7326235

107

11449

1225043

10.3440804

4.7474594

108

11664

1259712

10.3923048

4.7622032

109

11881

1295029

10.4403065

4.7768562

110

12100

1331000

10.4880885

4.7914199

111

12321

1367631

10.5356538

4.8058955

112

12544

1404928

10.5830052

4.8202845

113

12769

1442897

10.6301458

4.8345881

114

12996

1481544

10.6770783

4.8488076

115

13225

1520875

10.7238053

4.8629442

116

13456

1560896

10.7703296

4.8769990

117

13689

1601613

10.8166538

4.8909732

118

13924

1643032

10.8627805

4.9048681

119

14161

1685159

10.9087121

4.9186847

120

14400

1728000

10.9544512

4.9324242

121

14641

1771561

11.0000000

4.9460874

122

14884

1815848

11.0453610

4.9596757

192

INSIDE FINISHING

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

123

15129

1860867

11.0905365

4.9731898

124

15376

1906624

11.1355287

4.9866310

125

15625

1953125

11.1803399

5.0000000

126

15876

2000376

11.2249722

5.0132979

127

16129

2048383

11.2694277

5.0265257

128

16384

2097152

11.3137085

5.0396842

129

16641

2146689

11.3578167

5.0527743

130

16900

2197000

11.4017543

5.0657970

131

17161

2248091

11.4455231

5.0787531

132

17424

2299968

11.4891253

5.0916434

133

17689

2352637

11.5325626

5.1044687

134

17956

2406104

11.5758369

5.1172299

135

18225

2460375

11.6189500

5.1299278

136

18496

2515456

11.6619038

5.1425632

137

18769

2571353

11.7046999

5.1551367

138

19044

2628072

11.7473401

5.1676493

139

19321

2685619

11.7898261

5.1801015

140

19600

2744000

11.8321596

5.1924941

141

19881

2803221

11.8743421

5.2048279

142

20164

2863288

11.9163753

5.2171034

143

20449

2924207

11.9582607

5.2293215

144

20736

2985984

12.0000000

5.2414828

145

21025

3048625

12.0415946

5.2535879

146

21316

3112136

12.0830460

5.2656374

147

21609

3176523

12.1243557

5.2776321

148

21904

3241792

12.1655251

5.2895725

149

22201

3307949

12.2065556

5.3014592

150

22500

3375000

12.2474487

5.3132928

151

22801

3442951

12.2882057

5.3250740

152

23104

3511808

12.3288280

5.3368033

153

23409

3581577

12.3693169

5.3484812

154

23716

3652264

12.4096736

5.3601084

155

24025

3723875

12.4498996

5.3716854

156

24336

3796416

12.4899960

5.3832126

157

24649

3869893

12.5299641

5.3946907

158

24964

3944312

12.5698051

5.4061202

159

25281

4019679

12.6095202

5.4175015

160

25600

4096000

12.6491106

5.4288352

161

25921

4173281

12.6885775

5.4401218

162

26244

4251528

12.7279221

5.4513618

163

26569

4330747

12.7671453

5.4625556

TABLES

193

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

164

26896

4410944

12.8062485

5.4737037

165

27225

4492125

12.8452326

5.4848066

166

27556

4574296

12.8840987

5.4958647

167

27889

4657463

12.9228480

5.5068784

168

28224

4741632

12.9614814

5.5178484

169

28561

4826809

13.0000000

5.5287748

170

28900

4913000

13.0384048

5.5396583

171

29241

5000211

13.0766968

5.5504991

172

29584

5088448

13.1148770

5.5612978

173

29929

5177717

13.1529464

5.5720546

174

30276

5268024

13.1909060

5.5827702

175

30625

5359375

13.2287566

5.5934447

176

30976

5451776

13.2664992

5.6040787

177

31329

5545233

13.3041347

5.6146724

178

31684

5639752

13.3416641

5.6252263

179

32041

5735339

13.3790882

5.6357408

180

32400

5832000

13.4164079

5.6462162

181

32761

5929741

13.4536240

5.6566528

182

33124

6028568

13.4907376

5.6670511

183

33489

6128487

13.5277493

5.6774114

184

33856

6229504

13.5646600

5.6877340

185

34225

6331625

13.6014705

5.6980192

186

34596 6434856

13.6381817

5.7082675

187

34969 6539203

13.6747943

5.7184791

188

35344

6644672

13.7113092

5.7286543

189

35721

6751269

13.7477271

5.7387936

190

36100

6859000

13.7840488

5.7488971

191

36481

6967871

13.8202750

5.7589652

192

36864

7077888

13.8564065

5.7689982

193

37249

7189057

13.8924440

5.7789966

194

37636

7301384

13.9283883

5.7889604

195

38025

7414875

13.9642400

5.7988900

196

38416

7529536

14.0000000

5.8087857

197

38809

7645373

14.0356688

5.8186479

198

39204

7762392

14.0712473

5.8284767

199

39601

7880599

14.1067360

5.8382725

200

40000

8000000

14.1421356

5.8480355

201

40401

8120601

14.1774469

5.8577660

202

40804

8242408

14.2126704

5.8674643

203

41209

8365427

14.2478068

5.8771307

204

41616

8489664

14.2828569

5.8867653

194

INSIDE FINISHING

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

205

42025

8615125

14.3178211

5.8963685

206

42436

8741816

14.3527001

5.9059406

207

42849

8869743

14.3874946

5.9154817

208

43264

8998912

14.4222051

5.9249921

209

43681

9129329

14.4568323

5.9344721

210

44100

9261000

14.4913767

5.9439220

211

44521

9393931

14.5258390

5.9533418

212

44944

9528128

14.5602198

5.9627320

213

45369

- 9663597

14.5945195

5.9720926

214

45796

9800344

14.6287388

5.9814240

215

46225

9938375

14.6628783

5.9907264

216

46656

10077696

14.6969385

6.0000000

217

47089

10218313

14.7309199

6.0092450

218

47524

10360232

14.7648231

6.0184617

219

47961

10503459

14.7986486

6.0276502

220

48400

10648000

14.8323970

6.0368107

221

48841

10793861

14.8660687

6.0459435

222

49284 '

10941048

14.8996644

6.0550489

223

49729

11089567

14.9331845

6.0641270

224

50176

11239424

14.9666295

6.0731779

225

50625

11390625

15.0000000

6.0822020

226

51076

11543176

15.0332964

6.0911994

227

51529

11697083

15.0665192

6.1001702

228

51984

11852352

15.0996689

6.1091147

229

52441

12008989

15.1327460

6.1180332

230

52900

12167000

15.1657509

6.1269257

231

53361

12326391

15.1986842

6.1357924

232

53824

12487168

15.2315462

6.1446337

233

54289

12649337

15.2643375

6.1534495

234

54756

12812904

15.2970585

6.1622401

235

55225

12977875

15.3297097

6.1710058

236

55696

13144256

15.3622915

6.1797466

237

56169

13312053

15.3948043

6.1884628

238

56644

13481272

15.4272486

6.1971544

239

57121

13651919

15.4596248

6.2058218

240

57600

13824000

15.4919334

6.2144650

241

58081

13997521

15.5241747

6.2230843

242

58564

14172488

15.5563492

6.2316797

243

59049

14348907

15.5884573

6.2402515

244

59536

14526784

15.6204994

6.2487998

245

60025

14706125

15.6524758

6.2573248

TABLES

195

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

246 .

60516

14886936

15.6843871

6.2658266

247

61009

15069223

15.7162336

6.2743054

248

61504

15252992

15.7480157

6.2827613

249

62001

15438249

15.7797338

6.2911946

250

62500

15625000

15.8113883

6.2996053

251

63001

15813251

15.8429795

6.3079935

252

63504

16003008

15.8745079

6.3163596

253

64009

16194277

15.9059737

6.3247035

254

64516

16387064

15.9373775

6.3330256

255

65025

16581375

15.9687194

6.3413257

256

65536

16777216

16.0000000

6.3496042

257

66049

16974593

16.0312195

6.3578611

258

66564

17173512

16.0623784

6.3660968

259

67081

17373979

16.0934769

6.3743111

260

67600

17576000

16.1245155

6.3825043

261

68121

17779581

16.1554944

6.3906765

262

68644

17984728

16.1864141

6.3988279

263

69169

18191447

16.2172747

6.4069585

264

69696

18399744

16.2480768

6.41506S7

265

70225

18609625

16.2788206

6.4231583

266

70756

18821096

16.3095064

6.4312276

267

71289

19034163

16.3401346

6.4392767

268

71824

19248832

16.3707055

6.4473057

269

72361

19465109

16.4012195

6.4553148

270

72900

19683000

16.4316767

6.4633041

271

73441

19902511

16.4620776

6.4712736

272

73984

20123648

16.4924225

6.4792236

273

74529

20346417

16.5227116

6.4871541

274

75076

20570824

16.5529454

6.4950653

275

75625

20796875

16.5831240

6.5029572

276

76176

21024576

16.6132477

6.5108300

277

76729

21253933

16.6433170

6.5186839

278

77284

21484952

16.6733320

6.5265189

279

77841

21717639

16.7032931

6.5343351

280

78400

21952000

16.7332005

6.5421326

281

78961

22188041

16.7630546

6.5499116

282

79524

22425768

16.7928556

6.5576722

283

80089

22665187

16.8226038

6.5654144

284

80656

22906304

16.8522995

6.5731385

285

81225

23149125

16.8819430

6.5808443

286

81796

23393656

16.9115345

6.5885323

196

INSIDE FINISHING

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

287

82369

23639903

16.9410743

6.5962023

288

82944

23887872

16.9705627

6.6038545

289

83521

24137569

17.0000000

6.6114890

290

84100

24389000

17.0293864

6.6191060

291

84681

24642171

17.0587221

6.6267054

292

85264

24897088

17.0880075

6.6342874

293

85849

25153757

17.1172428

6.6418522

294

86436

25412184

17.1464282

6.6493998

295

87025

25672375

17.1755640

6.6569302

296

87616

25934336

17.2046505

6.6644437

297

88209

26198073

17.2336879

6.6719403

298

88804

26463592

17.2626765

6.6794200

299

89401

26730899

17.2916165

6.6868831

300

90000

27000000

17.3205081

6.6943295

301

90601

27270901

17.3493516

6.7017593

302

91204

27543608

17.3781472

6.7091729

303

91809

27818127

17.4068952

6.7165700

304

92416

28094464

17.4355958

6.7239508

305

93025

28372625

17.4642492

6.7313155

306

93636

28652616

17.4928557

6.7386641

307

94249

28934443

17.5214155

6.7459967

308

94864

29218112

17.5499288

6.7533134

309

95481

29503629

17.5783958

6.7606143

310

96100

29791000

17.6068169

6.7678995

311

96721

30080231

17.6351921

6.7751690

312

97344

30371328

17.6635217

6.7824229

313

97969

30664297

17.6918060

6.7896613

314

98596

30959144

17.7200451

6.7968844

315

99225

31255875

17.7482393

6.8040921

316

99856

31554496

17.7763888

6.8112847

317

100489

31855013

17.8044938

6.8184620

318

101124

32157432

17.8325545

6.8256242

319

101761

32461759

17.8605711

6.8327714

320

102400

32768000

17.8885438

6.8399037

321

103041

33076161

17.9164729

6.8470213

322

103684

33386248

17.9443584

6.8541240

323

104329

33698267

17.9722008

6.8612120

324

104976

34012224

18.0000000

6.8682855

325

105625

34328125

18.0277564

6.8753443

326

106276

34645976

18.0554701

6.8823888

327

106929

34965783

18.0831413

6.8894188

TABLES

197

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

328

107584

35287552

18.1107703

6.8964345

329

108241

35611289

18.1383571

6.9034359

330

108900

35937000

18.1659021

6.9104232

331

109561

36264691

18.1934054

6.9173964

332

110224

36594368

18.2208672

6.9243556

333

110889

36926037

18.2482876

6.9313008

334

111556

37259704

18.2756669

6.9382321

335

112225

37595375

18.3030052

6.9451496

336

112896

37933056

18.3303028

6.9520533

337

113569

38272753

18.3575598

6.9589434

338

114244

38614472

18.3847763

6.9658198

339

114921

38958219

18.4119526

6.9726826

340

115600

39304000

18.4390889

6.9795321

341

116281

39651821

18.4661853

6.9863681

342

116964

40001688

18.4932420

6.9931906

343

117649

40353607

18.5202592

7.0000000

344

118336

40707584

18.5472370

7.0067962

345

119025

41063625

18.5741756

7.0135791

346

119716

41421736

18.6010752

7.0203490

347

120409

41781923

18.6279360

7.0271058

348

121104

42144192

18.6547581

7.0338497

349

121801

42508549

18.6815417

7.0405806

350

122500

42875000

18.7082869

7.0472987

351

123201

43243551

18.7349940

7.0540041

352

123904

43614208

18.7616630

7.0606967

353

124609

43986977

18.7882942

7.0673767

354

125316

44361864

18.8148877

7.0740440

355

126025

44738875

18.8414437

7.0806988

356

126736

45118016

18.8679623

7.0873411

357

127449

45499293

18.8944436

7.0939709

358

128164

45882712

18.9208879

7.1005885

359

128881

46268279

18.9472953

7.1071937

360

129600

46656000

18.9736660

7.1137866

361

130321

47045881

19.0000000

7.1203674

362

131044

47437928

19.0262976

7.1269360

363

131769

47832147

19.0525589

7.1334925

364

132496

48228544

19.0787840

7.1400370

365

133225

48627125

19.1049732

7.1465695

366

133956

49027896

19.1311265

7.1530901

367

134689

49430863

19.1572441

7.1595988

368

135424

49836032

19.1833261

7.1660957

198

INSIDE FINISHING

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

369

136161

50243409

19.2093727

7.1725809

370

136900

50653000

19.2353841

7.1790544

371

137641

51064811

19.2613603

7.1855162

372

138384

51478848

19.2873015

7.1919663

373

139129

51895117

19.3132079

7.1984050

374

139876

52313624

19.3390796

7.2048322

375

140625

52734375

19.3649167

7.2112479

376

141376

53157376

19.3907194

7.2176522

377

142129

53582633

19.4164878

7.2240450

378

142884

54010152

19.4422221

7.2304268

379

143641

54439939

19.4679223

7.2367972

380

144400

54872000

19.4935887

7.2431565

381

145161

55306341

19.5192213

7.2495045

382

145924

55742968

19.5448203

7.2558415

383

146689

56181887

19.5703858

7.2621675

384

147456

56623104

19.5959179

7.2684824

385

148225

57066625

19.6214169

7.2747864

386

148996

57512456

19.6468827

7.2810794

387

149769

57960603

19.6723156

7.2873617

388

150544

58411072

19.6977156

7.2936330

389

151321

58863869

19.7230829

7.2998936

390

152100

59319000

19.7484177

7.3061436

391

152881

59776471

19.7737199

7.3123828

392

153664

60236288

19.7989899

7.3186114

393

154449

60698457

19.8242276

7.3248295

394

155236

61162984

19.8494332

7.3310369

395

156025

61629875

19.8746069

7.3372339

396

156816

62099136

19.8997487

7.3434205

397

157609

62570773

19.9248588

7.3495966

398

158404

63044792

19.9499373

7.3557624

399

159201

63521199

19.9749844

7.3619178

400

160000

64000000

20.0000000

7.3680630

401

160801

64481201

20.0249844

7.3741979

402

161604

64964808

20.0499377

7.3803227

403

162409

65450827

20.0748599

7.3864373

404

163216

65939264

20.0997512

7.3925418

405

164025

66430125

20.1246118

7.3986363

406

164836

66923416

20.1494417

7.4047206

407

165649

67419143

20.1742410

7.4107950

408

166464

67917312

20.1990099

7.4168595

409

167281

68417929

20.2237484

7.4229142

TABLES

199

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

410

168100

68921000

20.2484567

7.4289589

411

168921

69426531

20.2731349

7,4349938

412

169744

69934528

20.2977831

7.4410189

413

170569

70444997

20.3224014

7.4470342

414

171396

70957944

20.3469899

7.4530399

415

172225

71473375

20.3715488

7.4590359

416

173056

71991296

20.3960781

7.4650223

417

173889

72511713

20.4205779

7.4709991

418

174724

73034632

20.4450483

7.4769664

419

175561

73560059

20.4694895

7.4829242

420

176400

74088000

20.4939015

7.4888724

421

177241

74618461

20.5182845

7.4948113

422

178084

75151448

20.5426386

7.5007406

423

178929

75686967

20.5669638

7.5066607

424

179776

76225024

20.5912603

7.5125715

425

180625

76765625

20.6155281

7.5184730

426

181476

77308776

20.6397674

7.5243652

427

182329

77854483

20.6639783

7.5302482

428

183184

78402752

20.6881609

7.5361221

429

184041

78953589

20.7123152

7.5419867

430

184900

79507000

20.7364414

7.5478423

431

185761

80062991

20.7605395

7.5536888

432

186624

80621568

20.7846097

7.5595263

433

187489

81182737

20.8086520

7.5653548

434

188356

81746504

20.8326667

7.5711743

435

189225

82312875

20.8566536

7.5769849

436

190096

82881856

20.8806130

7.5827865

437

190969

83453453

20.9045450

7.5885793

438

191844

84027672

20.9284495

t 7.5943633

439

192721

84604519

20.9523268

7.6001385

440

193600

85184000

20.9761770

7.6059049

441

194481

85766121

21.0000000

7.6116626

442

195364

86350888

21.0237960

7.6174116

443

196249

86938307

21.0475652

7.6231519

444

197136

87528384

21.0713075

7.6288837

445

198025

88121125

21.0950231

7.6346067

446

198916

88716536

21.1187121

7.6403213

447

199809

89314623

21.1423745

7.6460272

448

200704

89915392

21.1660105

7.6517247

449

201601

90518849

21.1896201

7.6574138

450

202500

91125000

21.2132034

7.6630943

200

INSIDE FINISHING

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

451

203401

91733851

21.2367606

7.6687665

452

204304

92345408

21.2602916

7.6744303

453

205209

92959677

21.2837967

7.6800857

454

206116

93576664

21.3072758

7.6857328

455

207025

94196375

21.3307290

7.6913717

456

207936

94818816

21.3541565

7.6970023

457

208849

95443993

21.3775583

7.7026246

458

209764

96071912

21.4009346

7.7082388

459

210681

96702579

21.4242853

7.7138448

460

211600

97336000

21.4476106

7.7194426

461

212521

97972181

21.4709106

7.7250325

462

213444

98611128

21.4941853

7.7306141

463

214369

99252847

21.5174348

7.7361877

464

215296

99897344

21.5406592

7.7417532

465

216225

100544625

21.5638587

7.7473109

466

217156

101194696

21.5870331

7.7528606

467

218089

101847563

21.6101828

7.7584023

468

219024

102503232

21.6333077

7.7639361

469

219961

103161709

21.6564078

7.7694620

470

220900

103823000

21.6794834

7.7749801

471

221841

104487111

21.7025344

7.7804904

472

222784

105154048

21.7255610

7.7859928

473

223729

105823817

21.7485632

7.7914875

474

224676

106496424

21.7715411

7.7969745

475

225625

107171875

21.7944947

7.8024538

476

226576

107850176

21.8174242

7.8079254

477

227529

108531333

21.8403297

7.8133892

478

228484

109215352

21.8632111

7.8188456

479

. 229441

109902239

21.8860686

7.8242942

480

230400

110592000

• 21.9089023

7.8297353

481

231361

111284641

21.9317122

7.8351688

482

232324

111980168

21.9544984

7.8405949

483

233289

112678587

21.9772610

7.8460134

484

234256

113379904

22.0000000

7.8514244

485

235225

114084125

22.0227155

7.8568281

486

236196

114791256

22.0454077

7.8622242

487

237169

115501303

22.0680765

7.8676130

488

238144

116214272

22.0907220

7.8729944

489

239121

116930169

22.1133444

7.8783684

490

240100

117649000

22.1359436

7.8837352

491

241081

118370771

22.1585198

7.8890946

TABLES

201

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQTTAHE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

492

242064

119095488

22.1810730

7.8944468

493

243049

119823157

22.2036033

7.8997917

494

244036

120553784

22.2261108

7.9051294

495

245025

121287375

22.2485955

7.9104599

496

246016

122023936

22.2710575

7.9157832

497

247009

122763473

22.2934968

7.9210994

498

248004

123505992

22.3159136

7.9264085

499

249001

124251499

22.3383079

7.9317104

500

250000

125000000

22.3606798

7.9370053

501

251001

125751501

22.3830293

7.9422931

502

252004

126506008

22.4053565

7.9475739

503

253009

127263527

22.4276615

7.9528477

504

254016

128024064

22.4499443

7.9581144

505

255025

128787625

22.4722051

7.9633743

506

256036

129554216

22.4944438

7.9686271

507

257049

130323843

22.5166605

7.9738731

508

258064

131096512

22.5388553

7.9791122

509

259081

131872229

22.5610283

7.9843444

510

260100

132651000

22.5831796

7.9895697

511

261121

133432831

22.6053091

7.9947883

512

262144

134217728

22.6274170

8.0000000

513

263169

135005697

22.6495033

8.0052049

514

264196

135796744

22.6715681

8.0104032

515

265225

136590875

22.6936114

8.0155946

516

266256

137388096

22.7156334

8.02'07794

517

267289

138188413

22.7376340

8.0259574

518

268324

138991832

22.7596134

8.0311287

519

269361

139798359

22.7815715

8.0362935

520

270400

140608000

22.8035085

8.0414515

521

271441

141420761

22.8254244

8.0466030

522

272484

142236648

22.8473193

8.0517479

523

273529

143055667

22.8691933

8.0568862

524

274576

143877824

22.8910463

8.0620180

525

275625

144703125

22.9128785

8.0671432

526

276676

145531576

22.9346899

8.0722620

527

277729

146363183

22.9564806

8.0773743

528

278784

147197952

22.9782506

8.0824800

529

279841

148035889

23.0000000

8.0875794

530

280900

148877000

23.0217289

8.0926723

531

281961

149721291

23.0434372

8.0977589

532

283024

150568768

23.0651252

8.1028390

202

INSIDE FINISHING

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

533

284089

151419437

23.0867928

8.1079128

534

285156

152273304

23.1084400

8.1129803

535

286225

153130375

23.1300670

8.1180414

536

287296

153990656

23.1516738

8.1230962

537

288369

154854153

23.1732605

8.1281447

538

289444

155720872

23.1948270

8.1331870

539

290521

156590819

23.2163735

8.1382230

540

291600

157464000

23.2379001

8.1432529

541

292681

158340421

23.2594067

8.1482765

542

293764

159220088

23.2808935

8.1532939

543

294849

160103007

23.3023604

8.1583051

544

295936

160989184

23.3238076

8.1633102

545

297025

161878625

23.3452351

8.1683092

546

298116

162771336

23.3666429

8.1733020

547

299209

163667323

23.3880311

8.1782888

548

300304

164566592

23.4093998

8.1832695

549

301401

165469149

23.4307490

8.1882441

550

302500

166375000

23.4520788

8.1932127

551

303601

167284151

23.4733892

8.1981753

552

304704

168196608

23.4946802

8.2031319

553

305809

169112377

23.5159520

8.2080825

554

306916

170031464

23.5372046

8.2130271

555

308025

170953875

23.5584380

8.2179657

556

309136

171879616

23.5796522

8.2228985

557

310249

172808693

23.6008474

8.2278254

558

311364

173741112

23.6220236

8.2327463

559

312481

174676879

23.6431808

8.2376614

560

313600

175616000

23.6643191

8.2425706

561

314721

176558481

23.6854386

8.2474740

562

315844

177504328

23.7065392

8.2523715

563

316969

178453547

23.7276210

8.2572633

564

318096

179406144

23.7486842

8.2621492

565

319225

180362125

23.7697286

8.2670294

566

320356

181321496

23.7907545

8.2719039

567

321489

182284263

23.8117618

8.2767726

568

322624

183250432

23.8327506

8.2816355

569

323761

184220009

23.8537209

8.2864928

570

324900

185193000

23.8746728

8.2913444

571

326041

186169411

23.8956063

8.2961903

572

327184

187149248

23.9165215

8.3010304

573

328329

188132517

23.9374184

8.3058651

TABLES

203

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

574

329476

189119224

23.9582971

8.3106941

575

330625

190109375

23.9791576

8.3155175

576

331776

191102976

24.0000000

8.3203353

577

332929

192100033

24.0208243

8.3251475

578

334084

193100552

24.0416306

8.3299542

579

335241

194104539

24.0624188

8.3347553

580

336400

195112000

24.0831891

8.3395509

581

337561

196122941

24.1039416

8.3443410

582

338724

197137368

24.1246762

8.3491256

583

339889

198155287

24.1453929

8.3539047

584

341056

199176704

24.1660919

8.3586784

585

342225

200201625

24.1867732

8.3634466

586

343396

201230056 24.2074369

8.3682095

587

344569

202262003 24.2280829

8.3729668

588

345744

203297472

24.2487113

8.3777188

589

346921

204336469

24.2693222

8.3824653

590

348100

205379000

24.2899156

8.3872065

591

349281

206425071

24.3104916

8.3919423

592

350464

207474688

24.3310501

8.3966729

593

351649

208527857 24.3515913

8.4013981

594

352836

209584584 24.3721152

8.4061180

595

354025

210644875

24.3926218

8.4108326

596

355216

211708736

24.4131112

8.4155419

597

356409

212776173

24.4335834

8.4202460

598

357604

213847192

24.4540385

8.4249448

599

358801

214921799

24.4744765

8.4296383

600

360000

216000000

24.4948974

8.4343267

601

361201

217081801

24.5153013

8.4390098

602

362404

218167208

24.5356883

8.4436877

603

363609

219256227

24.5560583

8.4483605

604

364816

220348864 24.5764115

8.4530281

605

366025

221445125

24.5967478

8.4576906

606

367236

222545016

24.6170673

8.4623479

607

368449

223648543

24.6373700

8.4670001

608

369664

224755712

24.6576560

8.4716471

609

370881

225866529

24.6779254

8.4762892

610

372100

226981000

24.6981781

8.4809261

611

373321

228099131

24.7184142

8.4855579

612

374544

229220928

24.7386338

8.4901848

613

375769

230346397

24.7588368

8.4948065

614

376996

231475544

24.7790234

8.4994233

204

INSIDE FINISHING

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

615

378225

232608375

24.7991935

8.5040350

616

379456

233744896

24.8193473

8.5086417

617

380689

234885113

24.8394847

8.5132435

618

381924

236029032

24.8596058

8.5178403

619

383161

237176659

24.8797106

8.5224321

620

384400

238328000

24.8997992

8.5270189

621

385641

239483061

24.9198716

8.5316009

622

386884

240641848

24.9399278

8.5361780

623

388129

241804367

24.9599679

8.5407501

624

389376

242970624

24.9799920

8.5453173

625

390625

244140625

25.0000000

8.5498797

626

391876

245314376

25.0199920

8.5544372

627

393129

246491883

25.0399681

8.5589899

628

394384

247673152

25.0599282

8.5635377

629

395641

248858189

25.0798724

8.5680807

630

396900

250047000

25.0998008

8.5726189

631

398161

251239591

25.1197134

8.5771523

632

399424

252435968

25.1396102

8.5816809

633

400689

253636137

25.1594913

8.5862047

634

401956

254840104

25.1793566

8.5907238

635

403225

256047875

25.1992063

8.5952380

636

404496

257259456

25.2190404

8.5997476

637

405769

258474853

25.2388589

8.6042525

638

407044

259694072

25.2586619

8.6087526

639

408321

260917119

25.2784493

8.6132480

640

409600

262144000

25.2982213

8.6177388

641

410881

263374721

25.3179778

8.6222248

642

412164

264609288

25.3377189

8.6267063

643

413449

265847707

25.3574447

8.6311830

644

414736 •

267089984

25.3771551

8.6356551

645

416025

268336125

25.3968502

8.6401226

646

417316

269586136

25.4165301

8.6445855

647

418609

270840023

25.4361947

8.6490437

648

419904

272097792

25.4558441

8.6534974

649

421201

273359449

25.4754784

8.6579465

650

422500

274625000

25.4950976

8.6623911

651

423801

275894451

25.5147016

8.6668310

652

425104

277167808

25.5342907

8.6712665

653

426409

278445077

25.5538647

8.6756974

654

427716

279726264

25.5734237

8.6801237

655

429025

281011375

25.5929678

8.6845456

TABLES

205

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

656

430336

282300416

25.6124969

8.6889630

657

431649

283593393

25.6320112

8.6933759

658

432964

284890312

25.6515107

8.6977843

659

434281

286191179

25.6709953

8.7021882

660

435600

. 287496000

25.6904652

8.7065877

661

436921

288804781

25.7099203

8.7109827

662

438244

290117528

25.7293607

8.7153734

663

439569

291434247

25.7487864

8.7197596

664

440896

292754944

25.7681975

8.7241414

665

442225

294079625

25.7875939

8.7285187

666

443556

295408296

25.8069758

8.7328918

667

444889

296740963

25.8263431

8.7372604

668

446224

298077632

25.8456960

8.7416246

669

447561

299418309

25.8650343

8.7459846

670

448900

300763000

25.8843582

8.7503401

671

450241

302111711

25.9036677

8.7546913

672

451584

303464448

25.9229628

8.7590383

673

452929

304821217

25.9422435

8.7633809

674

454276

306182024

25.9615100

8.7677192

675

455625

307546875

25.9807621

8.7720532

676

456976

308915776

26.0000000

8.7763830

677

458329

310288733

26.0192237

8.7807084

678

459684

311665752

26.0384331

8.7850296

679

461041

313046839

26.0576284

8.7893466

680

462400

314432000

26.0768096

8.7936593

681

463761

315821241

26.0959767

8.7979679

682

465124

317214568

26.1151297

8.8022721

683

466489

318611987

26.1342687

8.8065722

684

467856

320013504

26.1533937

8.8108681

685

469225

321419125

26.1725047

8.8151598

686

470596

322828856

26.1916017

8.8194474

687

471969

324242703

26.2106848

8.8237307

688

473344

325660672

26.2297541

8.8280099

689

474721

327082769

26.2488095

8.8322850

690

476100

328509000

26.2678511

8.8365559

691

477481

329939371

26.2868789

8.8408227

692

478864

331373888

26.3058929

8.8450854

693

480249

332812557

26.3248932

8.8493440

694

481636

334255384

26.3438797

8.8535985

695

483025

335702375

26.3628527

8.8578489

696

484416

337153536

26.3818119

8.8620952

206

INSIDE FINISHING

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

697

485809

338608873

26.4007576

8.8663375

698

487204

340068392

26.4196896

8.8705757

699

488601

341532099

26.4386081

8.8748099

700

490000

343000000

26.4575131

8.8790400

701

491401

344472101

26.4764046

8.8832661

702

492804

345948408

26.4952826

8.8874882

703

494209

347428927

26.5141472

8.8917063

704

495616

348913664

26.5329983

8.8959204

705

497025

350402625

26.5518361

8.9001304

706

498436

351895816

26.5706605

8.9043366

707

499849

353393243

26.5894716

8.9085387

708

501264

354894912

26.6082694

8.9127369

709

502681

356400829

26.6270539

8.9169311

710

504100

357911000

26.6458252

8.9211214

711

505521

359425431

26.6645833

8.9253078

712

506944

360944128

26.6833281

8.9294902

713

508369

362467097

26.7020598

8.9336687

714

509796

363994344

26.7207784

8.9378433

715

511225

365525875

26.7394839

8.9420140

716

512656

367061696

26.7581763

8.9461809

717

' 514089

368601813

26.7768557

8.9503438

718

515524

370146232

26.7955220

8.9545029

719

516961

371694959

26.8141754

8.9586581

720

518400

373248000

26.8328157

8.9628095

721

519841

374805361

26.8514432

8.9669570

722

521284

376367048

26.8700577

8.9711007

723

522729

377933067

26.8886593

8.9752406

724

524176

379503424

26.9072481

8.9793766

725

525625

381078125

26.9258240

8.9835089

726

527076

382657176

26.9443872

8.9876373

727

528529

384240583

26.9629375

8.9917620

728

529984

385828352

26.9814751

8.9958829

729

531441

387420489

27.0000000

9.0000000

730

532900

389017000

27.0185122

9.0041134

731

534361

390617891

27.0370117

9.0082229

732

535824

392223168

27.0554985

9.0123288

733

537289

393832837

27.0739727

9.0164309

734

538756

395446904

27.0924344

9.0205293

735

540225

397065375

27.1108834

9.0246239

736

541696

398688256

27.1293199

9.0287149

737

543169

400315553

27.1477439

9.0328021

TABLES

207

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

738

544644

401947272

27.1661554

9.0368857

739

546121

403583419

27.1845544

9.0409655

740

547600

405224000

27.2029410

9.0450417

741

549081

406869021

27.2213152

9.0491142

742

550564

408518488

27.2396769

9.0531831

743

552049

410172407

27.2580263

9.0572482

744

553536

411830784

27.2763634

9.0613098

745

555025

413493625

27.2946881

9.0653677

746

556516

415160936

27.3130006

9.0694220

747

558009

416832723

27.3313007

9.0734726

748

559504

418508992

27.3495887

9.0775197

749

561001

420189749

27.3678644

9.0815631

750

562500

421875000

27.3861279

9.0856030

751

564001

423564751

27.4043792

9.0896392

752

565504

425259008

27.4226184

9.0936719

753

567009

426957777

27.4408455

9.0977010

754

568516

428661064

27.4590604

9.1017265

755

570025

430368875

27.4772633

9.1057485

756

571536

432081216

27.4954542

9.1097669

757

573049

433798093

27.5136330

9.1137818

758

574564

435519512

27.5317998

9.1177931

759

576081

437245479

27.5499546

9.1218010

760

577600

438976000

27.5680975

9.1258053

761

579121

440711081

27.5862284

9.1298061

762

580644

442450728

27.6043475

9.1338034

763

582169

444194947

27.6224546

9.1377971

764

583696

445943744

27.6405499

9.1417874

765

585225

447697125

27.6586334

9.1457742

766

586756

449455096

27.6767050

9.1497576

767

588289

451217663

27.6947648

9.1537375

768

589824

452984832

27.7128129

9.1577139

769

591361

454756609

27.7308492

9.1616869

770

592900

456533000

27.7488739

9.1656565

771

594441

458314011

27.7668868

9.1696225

772

595984

460099648

27.7848880

9.1735852

773

597529

461889917

27.8028775

9.1775445

774

599076

463684824

27.8208555

9.1815003

775

600625

465484375

27.8388218

9.1854527

776

602176

467288576

27.8567766

9.1894018

777

603729

469097433

27.8747197

9.1933474

778

605284

470910952

27.8926514

9.1972897

208

INSIDE FINISHING

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

779

606841

472729139

27.9105715

9.2012286

780

608400

474552000

27.9284801

9.2051641

781

609961

476379541

27.9463772

9.2090962

782

611524

478211768

27.9642629

9.2130250

783

613089

480048687

27.9821372

9.2169505

784

614656

481890304

28.0000000

9.2208726

785

616225

483736625

28.0178515

9.2247914

786

617796

485587656

28.0356915

9.2287068

787

619369

487443403

28.0535203

9.2326189

788

620944

489303872

28.0713377

9.2365277

789

622521

491169069

28.0891438

9.2404333

790

624100

493039000

28.1069386

9.2443355

791

625681

494913671

28.1247222

9.2482344

792

627264

496793088

28.1424946

9.2521300

793

628849

498677257

28.1602557

9.2560224

794

630436

500566184

28.1780056

9.2599114

795

632025

502459875

28.1957444

9.2637973

796

633616

504358336

28.2134720

9.2676798

797

635209

506261573

28.2311884

9.2715592

798

636804

508169592

28.2488938

9.2754352

799

638401

510082399

28.2665881

9.2793081

800

640000

512000000

28.2842712

9.2831777

801

641601

513922401

28.3019434

9.2870440

802

643204

515849608

28.3196045

9.2909072

803

644809

517781627

28.3372546

9.2947671

804

646416

519718464

28.3548938

9.2986239

805

648025

521660125

28.3725219

9.3024775

806

649636

523606616

28.3901391

9.3063278

807

651249

525557943

28.4077454

9.3101750

808

652864

527514112

28.4253408

9.3140190

809

654481

529475129

28.4429253

9.3178599

810

656100

531441000

28.4604989

9.3216975

811

657721

533411731

28.4780617

9.3255320

812

659344

535387328

28.4956137

9.3293634

813

660969

537367797

28.5131549

9.3331916

814

662596

539353144

28.5306852

9.3370167

815

664225

541343375

28.5482048

9.3408386

816

665856

543338496

28.5657137

9.3446575

817

667489

545338513

28.5832119

9.3484731

818

669124

547343432

28.6006993

9.3522857

819

670761

549353259

28.6181760

9.3560952

TABLES

209

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

820

672400

551368000

28.6356421

9.3599016

821

674041

553387661

28.6530976

9.3637049

822

675684

555412248

28.6705424

9.3675051

823

677329

557441767

28.6879766

9.3713022

824

678976

559476224

28.7054002

9.3750963

825

680625

561515625

28.7228132

9.3788873

826

682276

563559976 28.7402157

9.3826752

827

683929

565609283

28.7576077

9.3864600

828

685584

567663552

28.7749891

9.3902419

829

687241

569722789

28.7923601

9.3940206

830

688900

571787000

28.8097206

9.3977964

831

690561

573856191

28.8270706

9.4015691

832

692224

575930368

28.8444102

9.4053387

833

693889

578009537

28.8617394

9.4091054

834

695556

580093704

28.8790582

9.4128690

835

697225

582182875

28.8963666

9.4166297

836

698896

584277056

28.9136646

9.4203873

837

700569

586376253

28.9309523

9.4241420

838

702244

588480472

28.9482297

9.4278936

839

703921

590589719

28.9654967

9.4316423

840

705600

592704000

28.9827535

9.4353880

841

707281

594823321

29.0000000

9.4391307

842

708964

596947688

29.0172363

9.4428704

843

710649

599077107

29.0344623

9.4466072

844

712336

601211584

29.0516781

9.4503410

845

714025

603351125

29.0688837

9.4540719

846

715716

605495736

29.0860791

9.4577999

847

717409

607645423

29.1032644

9.4615249

848

719104

609800192

29.1204396

9.4652470

849

720801

611960049

29.1376046

9.4689661

850

722500

614125000

29.1547595

9.4726824

851

v 724201

616295051

29.1719043

9.4763957

852

'725904

618470208

29.1890390

9.4801061

853

727609

620650477

29.2061637

9.4838136

854

729316

622835864

29.2232784

9.4875182

855

731025

625026375

29.2403830

9.4912200

856

732736

627222016

29.2574777

9.4949188

857

734449

629422793

29.2745623

9.4986147

858

736164

631628712

29.2916370

9.5023078

859

737881

633839779

29.3087018

9.5059980

860

739600

636056000

2913257566

9.5096854

210

INSIDE FINISHING

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

861

741321

638277381

29.3428015

9.5133699

862

743044

640503928

29.3598365

9.5170515

863

744769

642735647

29.3768616

9.5207303

864

746496

644972544

29.3938769

9.5244063

865

748225

647214625

29.4108823

9.5280794

866

749956

649461896

29.4278779

9.5317497

867

751689

651714363

29.4448637

9.5354172

868

753424

653972032

29.4618397

9.5390818

869

755161

656234909

29.4788059

9.5427437

870

756900

658503000

29.4957624

9.5464027

871

758641

660776311

29.5127091

9.5500589

872

760384

663054848

29.5296461

9.5537123

873

762129

665338617

29.5465734

9.5573630

874

763876

667627624

29.5634910

9.5610108

875

765625

669921875

29.5803989

9.5646559

876

767376

672221376

29.5972972

9.5682982

877

769129

674526133

29.6141858

9.5719377

878

770884

676836152

29.6310648

9.5755745

879

772641

679151439

29.6479342

9.5792085

880

774400

681472000

29.6647939

9.5828397

881

776161

683797841

29.6816442

9.5864682

882

777924

686128968

29.6984848

9.5900939

883

779689

688465387

29.7153159

9.5937169

884

781456

690807104

29.7321375

9.5973373

885

783225

693154125

29.7489496

9.6009548

886

784996

695506456

29.7657521

9.6045696

887

786769

697864103

29.7825452

9.6081817

888

788544

700227072

29.7993289

9.6117911

889

790321

702595369

29.8161030

9.6153977

890

792100

704969000

29.8328678

9.6190017

891

793881

707347971

29.8496231

9.6226030

892

795664

709732288

29.8663690

9.6262016

893

797449

712121957

29.8831056

9.6297975

894

799236

714516984

29.8998328

9.6333907

895

801025

716917375

29.9165506

9.6369812

896

802816

719323136

29.9332591

9.6405690

897

804609

721734273

29.9499583

9.6441542

898

806404

724150792

29.9666481

9.6477367

899

808201

726572699

29.9833287

9.6513166

900

810000

729000000

30.0000000

9.6548938

901

811801

731432701

30.0166620

9.6584684

TABLES

211

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

902

813604

733870808

30.0333148

9.6620403

903

815409

736314327

30.0499584

9.6656096

904

817216

738763264

30.0665928

9.6691762

905

819025

741217625

30.0832179

9.6727403

906

820836

743677416

30.0998339

9.6763017

907

822649

746142643

30.1164407

9.6798604

908

824464

748613312

30.1330383

9.6834166

909

826281

751089429

30.1496269

9.6869701

910

828100

753571000

30.1662063

9.6905211

911

829921

756058031

30.1827765

9.6940694

912

831744

758550528

30.1993377

9.6976151

913

833569

761048497

30.2158899

9.7011583

914

835396

763551944

30.2324329

9.7046989

915

837225

766060875

30.2489669

9.7082369

916

839056

768575296

30.2654919

9.7117723

917

840889

771095213

30.2820079

9.7153051

918

842724

773620632

30.2985148

9.7188354

919

844561

776151559

30.3150128

9.7223631

920

846400

778688000

30.3315018

9.7258883

921

848241

781229961

30.3479818

9.7294109

922

850084

783777448

30.3644529

9.7329309

923

851929

786330467

30.3809151

9.7364484

924

853776

788889024

30.3973683

9.7399634

925

855625

791453125

30.4138127

9.7434758

926

857476

794022776

30.4302481

9.7469857

927

859329

796597983

30.4466747

9.7504930

928

861184

799178752

30.4630924

9.7539979

929

863041

801765089

30.4795013

9.7575002

930

864900

804357000

30.4959014

9.7610001

931

866761

806954491

30.5122926

9.7644974

932

868624

809557568

30.5286750

9.7679922

933

870489

812166237

30.5450487 \ 9.7714845

934

872356

814780504

30.5614136

9.7749743

935

874225

817400375

30.5777697

9.7784516

936

876096

820025856

30.5941171

9.7819466

937

877969

822656953

30.6104557

9.7854288

938

879844

825293672

30.6267857

9.7889087

939

881721

827936019

30.6431069

9.7923861

940

883600

830584000

30.6594194

9.7958611

941

885481

833237621

30.6757233

9.7993336

942

887364

835896888

30.6920185

9.8028036

212

INSIDE FINISHING

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Continued

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

943

889249

838561807

30v7083051

9.8062711

944

891136

841232384

30.7245830

9.8097362

945

893025

843908625

30.7408523 .

9.8131989

946

894916

846590536

30.7571130

9.8166591

947

896809

849278133

30.7733651

9.8201169

948

898704

851971392

30.7896086

9.8235723

949

900601

854670349

30.8058436

9.8270252

950

902500

857375000

30.8220700

9.8304757

951

904401

860085351

30.8382879

9.8339238

952

906304

862801408

30.8544972

9.8373695

953

908209

865523177

30.8706981

9.8408127

954

910116

868250664

30.8868904

9.8442536

955

912025

870983875

30.9030743

9.8476920

956

913936

873722816

30.9192497

9.8511280

957

915849

876467493

30.9354166

9.8545617

958

917764

879217912

30.9515751

9.8579929

959

919681

881974079

30.9677251

9.8614218

960

921600

884736000

30.9838668

9.8648483

961

923521

887503681

31.0000000

9.8682724

962

925444

890277128

31.0161248

9.8716941

963

927369

893056347

31.0322413

9.8751135

964

929296

895841344

31.0483494

9.8785305

965

931225

898632125

31.0644491

9.8819451

966

933156

901428696

31.0805405

9.8853574

967

935089

904231063

31.0966236

9.8887673

968

937024

907039232

31.1126984

9.8921749

969

938961

909853209

31.1287648

9.8955801

970

940900

912673000

31.1448230

9.8989830

971

942841

915498611

31.1608729

9.9023835

972

944784

918330048

31.1769145

9.9057817

973

946729

921167317

31.1929479

9.9091776

974

948676

924010424

31.2089731

9.9125712

975

950625

926859375

31.2249900

9.9159624

976

952576

929714176

31.2409987

9.9193513

977

954529

932574833

31.2569992

9.9227379

978

956484

935441352

31.2729915

9.9261222

979

958441

938313739

31.2889757

9.9295042

980

960400

941192000

31.3049517

9.9328839

981

962361

944076141

31.3209195

9.9362613

982

964324

946966168

31.3368792

9.9396363

983

966289

949862087

31.3528308

9.9430092

TABLES 213

SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS — Concluded

NUMBER

SQUARE

CUBE

SQUARE ROOT

CUBE ROOT

984

968256

952763904

31.3687743

9.9463797

985

970225

955671625

31.3847097

9.9497479

986

972196

958585256

31.4006369

9.9531138

987

974169

961504803

31.4165561

9.9564775

988

976144

964430272

31.4324673

9.9598389

989

978121

967361669

31.4483704

9.9631981

990

980100

970299000

31.4642654

9.9665549

991

982081

973242271

31.4801525 9.9699095

992

984064

976191488

31.4960315

9.9732619

993

986049

979146657

31.5119025 9.9766120

994

988036

982107784

31.5277655

9.9799599

995

990025

985074875

31.5436206

9.9833055

996

992016

988047936

31.5594677

9.9866488

997

994009

991026973

31.5753068

9.9899900

998

996004

994011992

31.5911380

9.9933289

999

998001

997002999

31.6069613

9.9966656

1000

1000000

1000000000

31.6227766

10.0000000

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

TABLE 21
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
United States and British

GRAINS

DRAMS

OUNCES

POUNDS

HUNDRED-
WEIGHTS

GROSS TONS

.03657

.002286

.000143

.00000128

.000000176

27.34375

.0625

.003906

.00003488

.000001744

437.5

16.

.0625

.00055804

.00002790

7000.

256.

16.

.0089286

.0004464

784000.

28672.

1792.

112.

.05

5G80000.

573440.

35840.

2240.

20.

1 pound avoirdupois = 1.215278 pounds troy.
1 net ton = 2000 pounds = .892857 gross ton.

214

INSIDE FINISHING

TABLE 22

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT
United States and British

GRAINS

SCRUPLES

DRAMS

OUNCES

POUNDS

.05

.016667

.0020833

.000173611

.333333

.0416667

.0034722

.125

.0104167

480

24.

.0833333

5760

288.

96.

12.

The pound, ounce, and grain are the same as in troy weights.
The avoirdupois grain = troy grain = apothecaries' grain.

TABLE 23

TROY WEIGHT

United States and British

GRAINS

PENNYWEIGHTS

OUNCES

POUNDS

.041667

.0020833

.0001736

.05

.0041667

480

20.

.0833333

5760

240.

12.

1 pound troy = .822857 pound avoirdupois.
175 ounces troy = 192 ounces avoirdupois.

TABLE 24
LINEAR MEASURE

United States and British

INCHES

FEET

YARDS

RODS

FURLONGS

MILES

.08333

.02778

.0050505

.00012626

.00001578

.33333

.0606061

.00151515

.00018939

.1818182

.00454545

.00056818

198

16.5

5.5

.025

.003125

7920

660.

220.

40.

.125

63360

5280.

1760.

320.

TABLES

215

TABLE 25

SQUARE OB LAND MEASURE
United States and British

SQUARE
INCHES

SQUARE FEET

SQUARE YAKDS

SQUARE RODS

ACRES

SQUARE
MILES

.006944

.000771

144

.111111

1296

9.0

.03306

.0002066

39204

272.25

30.25

.00625

.00000977

6272640

43560.

4840.

160.

.0015625

27878400.

3097600.

102400.

640.

1 square rood
1 square acre

= 40 square rods.
208.71 feet square.

1 acre = 4 square roods.

TABLE 26

CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE
United States or British

1 cubic inch = .0005787 cubic foot = .000021433 cubic yard.
1 cubic foot = 1728 cubic inches = .03703704 cubic yard.
1 cubic yard = 27 cubic feet = 46656 cubic inches.
1 cord of wood = 128 cubic feet = 4 feet by 4 feet by 8 feet.
1 perch of masonry = 24.75 cubic feet = 16.5 feet by 1.5 feet by 1 foot,
is usually taken as 25 cubic feet.

TABLE 27

DRY MEASURE

United States Only

PINTS

QUARTS

GALLONS

PECKS

BUSHELS

CUBIC INCHES

.50

.125

.0625

.015625

33.6003125

.25

.125

.03125

67.200625

.05

.125

268.8025

.25

537.605

32.

2150.42

1 heaped bushel
6 inches high.

1.25 struck bushel, and the cone must not be less than

216

INSIDE FINISHING

TABLE 28
ROPE AND CABLE MEASURE

1 inch = .111111 span = .013889 fathom = .0001157 cable's length.
1 span = 9 inches = .125 fathom = .00104167 cable's length.
1 fathom = 6 feet = 8 spans = 72 inches = .008333 cable's length.
1 cable's length = 120 fathoms = 720 feet = 960 spans = 8640 inches.

TABLE 29

LIQUID MEASURE
United States Only

GILLS

PINTS

QUARTS

GALLONS

BARRELS

CUBIC INCHES

.25

.125

.03125

.000498

7.21875

.125

.003968

28.875

.25

.007937

57.75

.031746

231.

2008

252.

126.

31.5

7276.5

The British imperial gallon = 277.274 cubic inches or 10 pounds avoirdupois
of pure water at 62° F. and barometer at 30 inches.

The British imperial gallon = 1.20032 United States gallons.

1 fluid drachm = 60 minims = .125 fluid ounce = .0078125 pint.

1 fluid ounce = 480 minims = 8 drachms = .0625 pint.

TABLE 30
FRENCH MEASURES OF LENGTH WITH U. S. EQUIVALENTS

METERS

U. S. EQUIVALENTS

1 millimeter

0.001

0.03937 in.

10 millimeters .

1 centimeter ....

0.01

0.3937 in.

10 centimeters

1 decimeter ....

0.1

3.93704 in.

10 decimeters
100 centimeters
1000 millimeters

1 METER

1.0

J 39.3704 in.
J 3.2809 ft.

10 meters . .

1 decameter . . .

10.0

32.8087 ft.

10 decameters

1 hectometer . . .

100.0

328.0869 ft.

10 hectometers

1 KILOMETER . . .

1000.0

3280.869 ft.

10 kilometers .

• •

1 myriameter . . .

10000.0

6.21377 mi.

TABLES

217

TABLE 31

FRENCH MEASURES OF SURFACE WITH U. S. EQUIVALENTS

SQUARE METERS

U. S. EQUIVALENTS

1 sq. millimeter

0.000001

0.00155 sq. in.

100 sq. millimeters . .

1 sq. centimeter

0.0001

0.155 sq. in.

100 sq. centimeters . .

1 sq. decimeter

0.01

15.5003 sq. in.

100 sq. decimeters . \
10000 sq. centimeters J

1 sq. METER

1.0

f 10.7641 sq. ft.
\ 1.1960sq.yd.

100 sq. meters . . .

1 sq. decameter

100.0

f 1076.41 sq. ft.
\ 119.601 sq. yd.

100 sq. decameters . .

1 sq. hectometer

10000.0

f 11960.11 sq. yd.
12.4711 acres.

100 sq. hectometers

1 sq. kilometer

1000000.0

/ 1196014 sq. yd.
10.38611 sq. mi.

100 sq. kilometers . .

1 sq. myriameter

100000000.0

38.611 sq. mi.

TABLE 32
FRENCH MEASURES OF WEIGHT WITH U. S. AVOIRDUPOIS EQUIVALENTS

1 GRAMS

U. S. EQUIVALENTS

1 milligram . . . 0.001

0.0154 gr.

10 milligrams

1 centigram . . . 0.01

0.1543 gr.

10 centigrams ... 1 decigram .... 0.1

1.5432 gr.

10 decigrams ... 1 GRAM 1.0

15.4323 gr.

10 grams

1 decagram

10.0

f 154.3235 gr.
\ 0.3527 oz.

10 decagrams . . .1 hectogram . . . 1 100.0

f 1543.2?49 gr.
1 3.5274 oz.

10 hectograms . . . i 1 kilogram ....

1000.0

2.2046 Ib.

100 kilograms . . .1 metric quintal . .

220.4621 Ib.

10 quintals . "H . ....
1000 kilograms . . } | 1 ™lher or tonne .

(2204.6212 Ib.
] 19.6841 cwt.
( 0.9842 tons.

218

INSIDE FINISHING

TABLE 33

FRENCH MEASURES OF VOLUME WITH U. S. EQUIVALENTS

CUBIC METERS

U. S. EQUIVALENTS

1 cu. millimeter . .

0.000000001

0.000061 cu. in.

1000 cu.

millimeters .

1 cu. centimeter . .

0.000001

0.061025 cu. in.

1000 cu.

centimeters .

1 cu. decimeter . .

0.001

/ 61.02524 cu. in.
\ 0.0353156 cu. ft.

1000 cu.

decimeters .

1 cu. METER . . .

1.0

C 35.3156 cu. ft.
\ 1.308 cu. yd.

1000 cu.

meters . . .

1 cu. decameter . .

1000

1308.0 cu. yd.

TABLE 34
FRENCH MEASURES OF LIQUIDS WITH U. S. EQUIVALENTS

LITERS

U. S. EQUIVALENTS

f 1 centiliter . . \
\ 10 cu. centimeters j

0.01

f 0.61025 cu. in.
I 0.0845 gills.

10 centiliters ....

1 deciliter ....

0.1

f 6.1025 cu. in.
10.2114 pt.

10 deciliters ....

{1 LITER . . . \
1 cu. decimeter . j

1.0

f 61. 02524 cu. in.
10.2642 gal.

10 liters

1 decaliter ....

10.0

2.6418 gal.

10 decaliters ....

1 hectoliter ....

100.0

26.418 gal.

INDEX

Air, cold, 2 ;

cooled, 7 ;

heated, 2, 7 ;

pure, 3 ;

reheated, 3, 4 ;

removal of impure, 4, 5, 7.
Air spaces in refrigerator walls, 12.
Apothecaries' weight, 214.
Approximation method of estimating,

131, 137.
Architect, 152.
Areas of circles, 184.
Arithmetic questions, 156-176.
Artificially cooled air, 7.
Asbestos paper, 3.
Asphalt floor, 177.
Astragal molding, 29, 31.
Attic stairs, 96.
Avoirdupois weight, 213.

Balusters, cast-iron, 112;

designs of, 112 ;

dimensions of, 1 14 ;

methods of fastening, 113.
Band molding, 27.
Baseboard, fitting, 21, 32.
Base molding, fitting of, 28.
Bathroom, finish of, 50.
Bead, molding, 30 ;

staff, 73 ;

stop, 30, 71.
Bedding glass, with putty, 77, 83 ;

with rubber tape, 85.
Bed mold, 28 ;

mitering, 28.

Bending wood, table for, 177. •
Bevel of bottom rail of sash, 81.
Bill of material, -150.
Bird's beak molding, 31.
Blank contracts, 152.
Blind nailing, 19.
Blind stop, 70, 72, 85.
Blinds, hinges for, 85 ;

hung between casings, 72 ;

manufacture of, 85.

Boiled oil, 121.

Bottom rail of panel work, 36.

Box flight of stairs, 100.

Box window frames, 73.

Breaking joints in flooring, 22.

Brick, cubic measurements of, 136 ;

days' work in laying, 136.
Brick buildings, allowance for waste in,
136;

window frames for, 72.
Brickwork, 135.
Bridging, 139.
Brushes, care of, 126.
Builders, stair, 88.
Building, permit, 152 ;

regulations, 152.
Built stringer, 98.
Buttress stairs, 96.
Butts, or hinges, 62, 127.

Cable measure, 216.

Capacity of boxes, 183.

Cap molding, 28.

Carpenter and mason, 59, 133.

Carpentry, 136.

Carriages, dimensions of, 93 ;

for stairs, 92 ;

laying out, 92.
Casings, estimating, 144 ;

of doors and windows, 23 ;

of stairs, face, 94 ;

spliced, 26 ;

width of, 72.
Caul, for veneering, 56.
Cavetto molding, 31.
Ceiling, dado, 34 ;

used in refrigerator construction, 12

waste in, 20.
Cellar, stairs, 96;

sash, sizes of, 177.
Center hung sash, 74.
Central heating-plant system, 5.
Cesspool, 10;

subsoil for, 10.
Chamber slops, disposal of, 9.

219

220

INDEX

Checking estimates, 137.
Chimneys, data of brick, 183.
China closets, 46.
Circles, areas and circumferences of

184.
Circular panel work, 44 ;

stair riser, 110.

Circulation of air in refrigerators, 14.
Circumferences of circles, 184.
Clamps on rake dado, placing, 40.
Clapboards, 70.
Closed string stairs, 96.
Closets, china, 46 ;

clothes, 46 ;

dry earth, 9 ;

moth proof, 45 ;

trunk, 46.
Cold air ducts, 4.

Condensation on skylight sash, 84.
Conductor pipes of hot-air furnace, 2.
Construction, ice house, 15 ;

sash, 74.

Contour of moldings, 31.
Contract, blanks, 152 ;

legal aspects of, 152 ;

value of, 130.

Contractor, hints for the, 151.
Contractor's estimates, 131.
Coped, joint, 76;

panel work, 38.

Coping base and picture moldings, 28.
Cord, sash, 77, 81.
Core for veneering, 55.
Corner, block finish, 24 ;

boards, estimating, 142 ;

joints of base board, 32 ;

laps of dado, 38.
Cornice, estimating, 142.

especially designed, 30.
Cove molding, 29.
Crown molding, 28, 29.
Cubes of numbers, 189-213.
Cubic, or solid measure, 215.
Curb stairs, 96.
Curved panels, 44 ;

soffit, 41-43.
Customs in making measurements, 88,

135.

Cut stone, estimating, 135.
Cutting for plumbers, 80.
Cyma, recta molding, 31 ;

re versa, 31.

Dado, ceiling and paneled, 34 ;
measurements of, 34 ;
rake, 39.

Damper in cold air duct, 2.
Day's work in, bridging, 139 ;
building cornice, 142 ;
casing, 144 ;
cutting stone, 135 ;
excavating, 133 ;
fitting, and fastening base, 143 ;
hanging and locking doors, 143-144
hanging windows, 144 ;
lathing, 145 ;
laying brick, 136 ;
laying floor, 143 ;
laying stone, 135 ;
plan members, 138, 139 ;
plastering, 145 ;
putting on grounds, 144 ;
putting on siding, 142 ;
putting up wainscoting, 143 ;
roof members, 139, 140 ;
setting panel work, 143 ;
sheathing, 139;
studding, 138.

Dead air space in refrigerator, 12.
Decimal equivalents of a foot, 185 ;

of an inch, 186.
Dentils, molding, 30.
Dimensions of, stairs for public build-
ings, 91 ;

stair stringers, 92 ;
stair posts, 101.
Direct heating, 4.
Direct-indirect heating, 4.
Dish drainer, 49.
Dog-leg flight, 100.
Doorframes, 57 ;
estimating, 142 ;
for brick house, 58, 59 ;
setting, 58.
Doors, 53 ;
doweled, 53 ;

estimating labor on, 143, 144;
fitting, 60 ;
grades of, 55 ;
hand of, 62 ;
hanging of, 60 ;
in refrigerator, 13 ;
selection of, 54 ;
stock sizes of, 53 ;
veneered, 55.

INDEX

221

Dovetailed joint of sash, 75, 76.

Doweled joint in panel work, 37.

Dowels, staggered, 53.

Draft, natural and forced, 5, 7.

Draining pipes, 6.

Drain tile, 11.

Drawbored joint in sash, 76.

Drawer case, 46 ;

fitting a, 49.
Drier, japan, 121.
Drip of sash, 73.
Drum, furnace, 3.
Dry earth closet, 9.
Dry measure, 215.
Duct, cold air, in furnace, 2 ;

cold air, in refrigerator, 14 ;

foul air, 4, 5.

Easement of handrail, 100.
Echinus, molding, 31.
Embellishment of stair risers, 108.
Estimates, checking, 137 ;

records of, 132 ;

sub-contractor's, 131 ;

summarizing, 147.
Estimating, 130-153 ;

brickwork, 135 ;

casings, 144 ;

circular work, 139 ;

corner boards, 142 ;

cornice, 142 ;

doorframes, 142 ;

excavations, 133 ;

floors, 143 ;

frame of building, 136-139 ;

grading, 133 ;

grounds, 144;

hardware, 146 ;

heating, 147 ;

iron work, 139 ;

labor, 132;

labor on doors, 143 ;

labor on windows, 144 ;

painting, 146, 147 ;

plastering, 145 ;

price of material, 138 ;

roofing, 140 ;

roof members, 138, 139 ;

shelving, 144 ;

siding, 142 ;

stairs, 144;

stonework, 134;

Estimating, window frames, 141.
Excavations, 133.
Extras, price of, 50.

Face brick, cost of laying, 136.
Face string, framed into posts, 100 ;

of stairs, 94 ;

plank, 97.
Fan, ventilating,. 7.
Filler, wood, 124.
Fillet, molding, 30, 31.
Finish, bathroom, 50;

corner block, 24 ;

mitered, 24 ;

plain, 25 ;

shellac, 124.
Finishing close-grained wood, 125 ;

floors, 125;

open-grained wood, 124.
Fireplaces, 1.
Fitting base and picture molding, 28 ;

baseboard, 21, 32;

doors, 60 ;

drawer, 49 ;

hinges to door, 60;

locks, 63 ;

rabbet to door stile, 60 ;

sash, 80 ;

threshold, 65.
Flat color, 123.
Floor, asphalt, 177 ;

breaking joints in, 22;

diagonal, 22 ;

estimates of, 142 ;

finishing, 125;

ice house, 15 ;

laying, 19 ;

matched, 19;

paint, 125 ;

single, 32 ;

smoothing, 20 ;

square-edged, 19, 22 ;

starting, 21.
Flooring, nails in matched, 20;

narrow or wide boards, 21 ;

paper under, 20 ;

selection of wood for, 21 ;

waste in, 20.
Forced draft, 5, 7.

Frame of a building, estimating the,
136-139 ;

items for, 137.

222

INDEX

Frame, window, 69.
French measures, 216-218.
Furnace, air chamber of, 3 ;

drum, 3 ;

heating, 1 ;

location of, 2 ;

setting a, 2.

Galvanized iron lining for refrigerators,

14.

Gasoline torch, 123.
Glass, cutting, 80 ;

laid with a butt joint, 83 ;

setting, 84, 85.
Glaziers' points, 78, 83.
Glazing sash, 77.
Glue, its use in veneering, 56.
Glued, curved soffit, 43 ;

rails for circular panel work, 44.
Gluing rake dado, 40.
Grading, estimating the cost of, 133.
Gravity hinges, 85.
Grooved and tenoned panel work,

37.

Grooves under the bottom of the win-
dow sill, 71, 73.
Grooving, door panels, 53 :

skirting boards, 95.
Grounds, cost of putting on, 144.

Hair felting, 13.

Half round molding, 30.

Hand of doors, 62.

Handling material, cost of, 141.

Handrail, center line of, 101 ;

easement of, 100 ;

forms of, 111 ;

height of, 106 ;

material for, 112 ;

methods of fastening, 111 ;

methods of splicing, 112 ;

pitch of, 102.
Handrailing, 114.
Hanging a door, 60.
Hardware, 50, 126 ;

items to be estimated, 146 ;

trimmings, 127.
Hardwood doors, 55.
Header of window frame, 69.
Headroom, 88, 92.

Heating, by fireplace, stove and hot-
air furnace, 1 ;

Heating, direct, indirect, direct-indirect
methods, 4 ;

estimate of, 147 ;

hot-water, 4 ;

steam, 5.
Hinges, blind, 85 ;

butts or, 62, 127 ;

fitting, 60 ;

gravity, 85 ;

pin, 74.

Hollow molding, 30.
Hot-water heating, 4, 6.
Housing skirting boards, 95.
Hung window, 80.

Ice chamber, 14 ;

rack, 14;

refrigerator, 12.
Ice house, construction of, 15 ;

floor, 14 ;

packing ice in, 16 ;

ventilation of, 16.
Incidentals, per cent added for, 133,

148.

Indirect heating, 4.
Insurance regulations, 3.
Iron oxide, 122.
Iron work, estimating, 139.
Items for estimating, brickwork, 134 ;

framing, 137 ;

hardware, 146 ;

joinery, 141 ;

stonework, 134.

Japan drier, 121.

Joggled meeting rails of sash, 77.

Joinery, estimating, 140, 141.

Joint, between straight and curved

molding, 33 ;
coped, 76.
Jointing a door, 59.

Kerfing circular riser, 110;

curved soffit, 41.
Kitchen sink, 49.
Knock down window frames, 69.
Knots, treatment of, 122.

Labor on material, ratio of cost of, 140.
Landing of stairs, 91.
Lathing, estimates for, 145.
Laying, drain tile, 1 1 ;

INDEX

223

Laying, out stairs, 89 ;

stone, estimates of, 135.
Linear measure, table of, 214.
Linen closet, 45.
Lip molding, 28 ;

mitered, 28, 29.

Liquid measure, table of, 216, 218.
Location of house, 130.
Lock edge of door, jointing under the,

62.
Locks, 127;

fitting, 63 ;

refrigerator, 13.
Loose pin butts, 62, 127.

Mantels, 1, 50, 144.
Mason and carpenter, 59, 133.
Matched floor, 19.
Measurements of openings, 135;

of stair, 88 ;

of stone wall, 134.
Meeting rails of sash, 76, 80.
Metal work, painting, 122.
Method, in estimating, 130;

approximation, 131 ;

heating, 1 ;

saw kerfing, 41.
Middle rail of dado, 36.
Mineral wool, insulation by, 13.
Mitered casings, 24, 27.
Mixing paint, 121.
Moisture in furnace, 3.
Moldings, 27 ;

astragal, 29, 31 ;

band, 27 ;

base, 28 ;

bead, 30 ;

bed, 28;

bird's beak, 31 ;

cap, 28 ;

care of, 33 ;

cavetto, 31 ;

contour of, 31 ;

cornice, 29, 30 ;

cove, 29 ;

crown, 28, 29;

cyma recta, 31 ;

cyma re versa, 31 ;

dentils, 30 ;

echinus, 31 ;

fillets, 30, 31 ;

half round, 30 ; .

Moldings, hollow, 30 ;

joints, 33 ;

lip, 28 ;

mitered, 28, 29 ;

nosing, 30;

ogee, 30, 31 ;

ovolo, 31 ;

panel, 28 ;

quality of, 33 ;

quarter round, 29 ;

quirk, 30, 31 ;

returned upon themselves, 39 ;

room, or picture, 30 ;

scotia, 29 ;

"spalled" corners of, 33;

sprung, 28, 29 ;

stop bead, 30, 31 ;

talon, 31 ;

thumb, 31 ;

torus, 31.

Mortar, ingredients of, 135, 136.
Mortised, and tenoned, panel work, 37 ;

doors, 53 ;

joint of sash, 75 ;

locks, 63.

Mortises in section posts, 101, 103.
Moth proof closet, 45.
Mouse, use of, 82.
Mullion window frames, 73.
Muntins, of panel work, 36 ;

sash, 75.

Nailing, blind, 19.
Nails, 127 ;

estimates of, 138, 139, 142, 143;

in flooring, 20, 22 ;

tables of, 182.
Nail set, 19.

Narrow boards for flooring, 21.
Natural draft, 5, 7.
Newel post, 102.
Nosing of stair treads, 30, 96, 101 ;

forms of, 108 ;

mitered, 109.

Ogee, molding, 30, 31.

Oil, raw and boiled, 121.

Old paint, to remove, 123.

One-pipe system, 6.

Openings, in brick and stone walls,

measurements of, 135 ;
in ceiling for ventilation, 7 ;

224

INDEX

Openings, for stairs, 88 ;

tops of, 23.

Open string stairs, 94.
Outside finish, cost of, 142.
Ovolo, molding, 31.
Oxide of zinc, 122.

Padlocks, 63.

Paint, area covered by, 146 ;

floor, 125;

mixing, 121 ;

priming coat of, 121 ;

ready mixed, 121, 122;

removing old, 123 ;

roofing, 122, 140.
Painting, 121 ;

data for painting, 180 ;

estimating, 146, 147;

green wood, 123 ;

measuring surface for, 147 ;

metal work, 122 ;

wood which adjoins masonry, 123.
Panel moldings, raised and sunk, 28.
Panel work, 34 ;

circular, 44 ;

coped, 38 ;

grooved and tenoned, 37 ;

mortised and tenoned, 37 ;

muntins of, 36 ;

panels of, 34, 36 ;

rails of, 36 ;

rebated, 37 ;

section of, 38 ;

setting of, 38 ;

stiles for, 34 ;

tongued and grooved, 36.
Panels, 36 ;

curved, 44 ;

swelling of, 34.
Pantry, 46.
Paper, asbestos, 3.

hanging, cost of, 147 ;

table of wall paper, 180.
Parting strip of window frame, 69, 71,
. 77.

Permit, building, 152.
Picture molding, 30 ;

coping of, 28.
Pin hinge, 74.
Pipes, draining, 6 ;

hot-air conductor, 2 ;

laid before house is lathed, 8 ;

Pipes, pockets in, 6 ;

soil, 8 ;

wrapped in asbestos paper, 3.
Pitch board, 93.
Pitch of, hot-air pipes, 2 ;

sink drains, 11.
Planning stairs, 91.
Plans of house, 130.
Plastering, estimating, 145 ;

measuring for, 145 ;

table of materials, 145, 181.
Platform, flight of stairs, 99 ;

of stairs, 88, 90.
Plinth of door casings, 25.
Plumbing, cost of, 147;

inspection of, 8.
Pockets in, pipes, 6 ;

window frames, 71, 72, 81, 82.
Posts, bottom square of stair, 107.
Posts section, 100 ;

gallery, 104;

landing, 104 ;

newel, 102 ;

platform, 102;

setting, 104;

starting, 104 ;

square, 108;

winding, 102.
Privy, 9.

Profit, per cent added for, 133, 148.
Pulley stiles, of window frames, 69, 74 ;

of mullion frames, 73.
Putty, its use in glazing sash, 77 ;

in painting, 121 ;

knife, use of, 78 ;

softening of, 78.

Quarter round, use of, 21, 29.
Quirk, molding, 30, 31.

Radiators, steam and hot-water, 4, 5.
Rails, dado, 36 ;

sash, 75 ;

Rain-proofing skylight sash, 84.
Rake dado, 39.
Ratio of cost of labor to material, 140;

gas fitting to cost of house, 147 ;

hardware to cost of house, 146 ;

heating to cost of house, 147 ;

painting to cost of house, 147 ;

plastering to cost of house, 145 ;

plumbing to cost of house, 147.

INDEX

225

Raw oil, 121.
Ready mixed paints, 121.
Rebated panel work, 37.
Red cedar closets, 45.
Refrigerator, 12 ;

doors, 13 ;

ice rack for, 14 ;

waste pipe, 14.
Registers, hot-air, 2.
Regulations, building, 152 ;

insurance, 3.
Rim locks, 63.
Rise of stairs, 88.
Risers, construction of, 108 ;

height of, 89 ;

fitting to wall skirting board, 96 ;

housed to receive skirting board, 97 ;

skirting board fitted to, 95 ;

winding, 101.

Road dust for dry earth closet, 9.
Roof, painting a metal, 122.
Roofing, estimating, 140 ;

paint, 122.
Room molding, 30.
Roots, square and cube, 189-213.
Rope measure, 216.
Run of stairs, 88.
Rusty iron, painting, 122.

Sanitation, 8.

Sash, architect's details of, 73 ;

center hung, 74 ;

condensation on skylights, 84 ;

construction of, 74 ;

cord, 77, 81 ;

draw bored joints of, 76 ;

drip, 73 ;

fitting, 80 ;

glazing, 77 ;

hotbed, 82 ;

joggled meeting rails, 77 ;

muntins of, 75 ;

rails of, 75 ;

rainproofing of skylight, 84 ;

scribing bottom rails of, 80 ;

skylight, 82 ;

stock sizes of, 79 ;

store, 84 ;

table of cellar, 177 ;

table of sizes and weights of, 178, 179;

weights, 81, 82; .

window, 74.

Saw kerfing, 41.

Scotia, of cove, mitered, 29, 31 ;

use of, 96.

Scratch plane, use of, 56.
Scroll for stair riser, 108.
Section posts of stairs, 100, 101, 103.
Selecting, doors, 54 ;

moldings, 33 ;

wood, 23.
Septic method of disposing of sewage,

11.
Setting doorframes, 58 ;

glass with beads, 84 ;

glass in door, 85 ;

paneled dado, 38;

window frames, 70.
Sewage, disposal of, 8-10.
Sewerage system, 9.
Shavings, for refrigerator insulation,

13.
Sheathing paper, use in refrigerators,

12.
Shellac, finish, 124 ;

its use on knots, 122 ;

substitutes for, 125 ;

thinning, 125.
Shelving, estimating, 144.
Shims, 59.

Shingled roof, painting, 123.
Shingles, table of, 181 ;

staining, 123.

Shoe strip for base, 21, 32.
Shrinkage of, baseboard, 32 ;

treads and risers, 108.
Siding, estimating, 142 ;

thickness of, 70.
Sill, window, 69.
Single floor, 32.
Sink, drains, 11 ;

kitchen, 49 ;

splash board for, 50.
Sinkage of panel molding, 29.
Sizes of cellar sash, 177 ;

of doors, 54 ;

of windows, 178, 179;

of window frames and sash, 79.
Skirting board, 94 ;

fitted to risers, 95 ;

fitted to treads, 95 ;

fitted to wall, 95 ;

housed, 95, 97 ;

seasoning of, 95.

226

INDEX

Slate roof, estimating, 140 ;

table of, 181.
Soffit, curved, 41 ;

splayed, 43.
Soil pipes, 8.

"Spalled" corners of moldings, 33.
Specifications, 130.
Specific gravities of building materials,

188.

Splash board, 50.
Sprung molding, 28, 29.
Square, or land measure, 215 ;

stair posts, 108.
Squared end of pulley stile, 70.
Square-edged floor, 19 ;

laying, 22.

Squares, of numbers, 189-213.
Stables, data of, 183.
Staff bead, 73.
Staggered dowels, 53.
Staining shingles, 123.
Stair posts, 101 ;

dimensions of, 105 ;

square, 108 ;

stock, 105;

stringers, 92.
Stairs, box flight ot, 100;

buttress, 96 ;

closed string, 96 ;

curb, 96 ;

dog-leg flight of, 100 ;

easy flight of, 88 ;

estimating, 144 ;

forms of, 98 ;

headroom of, 92 ;

landing, 90, 91 ;

laying out of, 89 ;

measurements of, 88 ;

open string, 94 ;

pitch of, 102 ;

planning, 91 ;

platform flight of, 99 ;

straight run of, 99 ;

winding flight of, 99.
Steam, exhaust and direct, 5;

heating, 5.
Stiles of panel work, 34;

pulley, 69, 73, 74 ;

rake dado, gluing, 39, 40.
Striker of door, 63.
String, face, 94 ;

open, 94.

Stringer, built, 98 ;

dimensions of, 93 ;

laying out, .92 ;

setting, 104.
Stock bill, 131, 150.
Stock sizes of doors, 53, 54.
Stone wall, measurements of, 134 ;

waste in laying, 135.
Stonework, 133 ;

items for estimating, 134 ;

table of, 134.
Stool, window, 69.
Stop, for doorframes, 57;

bead, 30, 71 ;

blind, 70, 72, 85.
Store sash, 84.
Stoves, 1.
Studding, estimating, 138 ;

in refrigerator construction, 12.
Sub-contractor, 131.
Subsill, of window frames, 70.
Subsurface drainage, 10.
Summarizing estimates, 147.
Swelling of panels, 34.
Systems, one-, and two-pipe, 6.

Tables, 177-218.

Tanks, contents of round, 187.

Tenon on, face string of stairs, 100 ;

risers, 101.

Thickness of outside casings, 70.
Threshold, fitting, 65.
Thumb molding, 31.
Tin roof, cost of, 140.
Tongued and grooved, joint, 108 ;

panel work, 36.
Toothing plane, use of, 56.
Top rail of panel work, 36.
Tops of openings, 23.
Torus molding, 31.
Traps under sink, 11 ;

for refrigerator waste pipe, 14.
Treads, construction of, 108 ;

fitted to wall skirting board, 95 ;

horizontal distance covered by, 88 ;

housed to receive skirting board, 97;

skirting board fitted to, 95 ;

width of, 90 ;

winding, 99, 104.
Trimmings, hardware, 127.
Troy weight, 214.
Trunk closet, 46.

INDEX

227

Two-pipe system, 6.

Varnish, thinning, 126.
Varnished work, cost of, 146.
Veneered doors, 55.
Veneering 56.
Ventilating, by fireplaces, 1 ;

by forced draft, 5, 7.
Ventilation, 6 ;

contract sublet for, 7 ;

of an ice house, 16.
Vents, foul air, 5.

Vertical dimensions of stair posts, 103,
105.

Wall paper, table of, 180.
Wall skirting board, 95.
Warping panels, 45.
Waste, allowance for, 142 ;

in brickwork, 136 ;

in flooring, 20 ;

in stonework, 135.
Waste pipe in refrigerator, 14.
Water-closet, 10.

Water supply, contamination of, 9, 10.
Wearing floor, fitting to baseboard, 32 ;

paper under, 20.

Weather strip on refrigerator door, 13.
Wedges, in joint of sash, 75 ;

used in stair building, 95, 97.
Weight, apothecaries', 214;

avoirdupois, 213 ;

troy, 214.

Weights, of windows, 178, 179 ;

of building materials, 188.
White lead, its use in paint, 121.
Width of stair tread, 90.
Winding flight, 99 ;

dimensions of, 91 ;

risers, 101, 104.
Window, casement, 74;

mullion, 73, 74 ;

sash, 74 ;

sill, grooved, 71, 73;

weights and sizes of windows, 178,
179.

weights, space for, 72.
Window frames, 69 ;

architect's details of, 73 ;

box, 73 ;

Eastern and Western styles, 70 ;

estimating, 141 ;

for brick buildings, 72 ;

mullion, 73 ;

setting of, 70.

Windows, labor in fitting, 144.
Wood, filler, 124 ;

finishing, 124 ;

for finishing, 23 ;

for floors, 21 ;

mantels, 50;

table for bending, 177.
Woodwork, special, 50, 144.
Wreath, laying out, 114.

Zinc lining for refrigerators, 14.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
BERKELEY

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